Abtahi, H., 153
Akande, D., 78
Akehurst, M., 222
Akkerman, R., 122
Albrecht, A. R., 225
Aldrich, G. H., 48, 135
Alford, R. P., 195
Allen, C. A., 140
Almond, H. H., 179
Ambos, K., 238, 246, 249
Anderberg, B., 73
Anderson, K., 48
Antoine, P., 176, 191
Arend, A. C., 107
Arsanjani, M. H., 164
Austin, J. E., 176
Bacevich, A. J., 99
Baker, B., 184
Bantekas, I., 238
Barber, P., 94, 118
Barrett, R. W., 40
Bassiouni, C. M., 124
Baxter, R. R., 41, 74, 109, 203, 211, 224, 234--6
Belt, S. W., 126
Bernhardt, R., xvii
Best, G., 86
Biddle, T. D., 117
Bierzanek, R., 222
Bindschedler-Robert, D., 29, 38, 40, 124
Birov, V. A., 158
Blix, H., 59, 111, 122, 135, 182
Boelaert-Souminen, S., 243
Boisson de Chazournes, L., 79, 193
Booth, C. D., 131
Bothe, M., xix, 92, 103, 123, 126, 139, 144, 147, 183--4, 188--9, 223, 233
Bouvier, A. A., 85, 91, 124, 188--90, 195
Bretton, P., 129, 182
Bring, O., 71, 73
Brown, B. L., 126
Brown, J. B., 58, 154
Bruch, C. E., 176
Bueren, Van, G.,141
Buergenthal, T., 74, 224
Burger, J. A., 86
Burmester, H. C., 51
Busuttil, J. J., 70, 87
Caggiano, M. J. T., 179
Carnahan, B. M., 59, 65, 73, 86, 94
Carruthers, R., 183
Cassese, A., 51, 80, 83, 122--3, 128, 222, 233, 244
Charlesworth, H., 141
Clark, R. S., 61
Cohen, E. A., 99
Coll, A. R., 99, 107
Cottier, M., 128, 208
Coupland, R., 60, 80
Coursier, H., 135
Crawford, J., 16
Crowe, C. N., 240
Cryer, R., 48, 59
Dalton, J. G., 188
Dando, M., 60
Daoust, I., 80
David, E., 62, 94
De Gaulle, C., 47
De Preux, J., 26, 37, 44, 46, 51--2, 58, 62--3, 72, 146, 189--91, 201--7, 210, 212--13, 235, 240
Delissen, A. J. M., 103, 120, 142
Demarest, G. B., 209
DeSaussure, H., 85--6, 112
Desch, T., 160, 165
Desgagne, R., 177
Detter, I., 98, 135
Deventer, Van, H. W., 52
Diederich, M. D., 196
Dilhorne, Viscount, 36
Djonovich, D. J., 84
Dönitz, K., 54
Donner, M., 181
Dörmann, K., 33, 116, 146, 156
Doswald-Beck, L., 12, 53, 70, 73, 80, 83, 123, 125, 131, 144, 155, 169--71, 174, 177, 193, 206
Downey, W. G., 215
Draper, G. I. A. D., 34, 43
Drumbl, M. A., 186
Dunant, H., 10
Duncan, J. C., xvi
Durham, H., 121
Edgerton, L., 194
Edwards, J. P., 192
Eisenhower, D. D., 89
Eser, A., 248--9
Fauteux, P., 194
Feilchenfeld, E. H., 214
Fenrick, W. J., 67, 84, 102, 106, 116, 119, 122--3, 130, 186, 219, 238
Ferrer, M. A., 67--8
Fidler, D. P., 60
Fischer, G., 180, 189
Fischer, H., 128, 161, 226
Fleck, D., xvii, 86, 186, 199
Ford, W. J., 47
Fox, H., 186
Fujita, H., 52
Gaeta, P., 123, 233, 253
Gardam, J. G., 123, 130, 141
Gasser, H.-P., 149, 170
Geck, W. K., 8
Gehring, R. W., 152
Gilliland, J., 53
Ginnane, R. W., 35
Gioia, A., 188
Glahn, von, G. 42, 118
Goldblat, J., 76, 180, 187
Goldie, L. F. E., 107
Gómez, J. G., 110
Goose, S. D., 68--9
Granat, M. G., 59
Green, L. C., 26, 51--2, 60, 63, 88, 96, 110, 122, 133, 168, 174, 192, 236, 243
Greenspan, M., 19, 112
Greenwood, C., 14--16, 19, 60, 79, 96--7, 116, 120--1, 185, 196, 220, 226
Gross, O., 233
Grunawalt, R. J., 187
Guillory, M. E., 28
Gupta, S., 185
Hall, C. K., 242
Hall, M. T., 206
Hampson, F. J., 51, 87, 93, 118, 125, 221
Hanke, H. M., 117
Happold, M., 142
Harlow, B. A., 187
Hart, F. A., 239
Hartwig, M., 108
Heere, W. P., 63
Heinegg, Heintschel von, W., 84, 105, 107, 137--8, 181, 217
Henckaerts, J.-M., 162, 164--5
Herby, P., 62, 67
Herczegh, G., 182
Herthel, T. J., 62
Heydrich, R., 95
Higgins, R., 55, 59, 79, 119--20
Hladik, J., 164
Hodgkinson, D., 196
Hodson, Lord, 40
Holland, T. E., 111, 128, 200, 205
Howard, M., 117
Hudson, M. O., xviii
Hull, W. I., 154
Hulme, K., 184
Hyde, C. C., 133--4
Infeld, D. L., 126
Ipsen, K., 202, 212
Ishoey, R., 80
Israel, F. L., 72
Jakovlevic, B., 149
Jennings, R. Y., 6, 32, 111
Jia, B. B., 240
Johnson, D. H. N., 216
Jones, J. R. W. D., 123, 233
Joyner, C. C., 191
Juda, L., 179
Kalshoven, F., 64, 66, 81, 85, 93, 121--2, 132, 183, 187, 202--3, 221, 225--6
Kaye, D., 69
Keijzer, N., 227
Kelly, J. B., 95
Kelsen, H., 252
Kendall, J. N., 95
Kirkhope, J. T., 191
Kiss, A., 183
Korhonen, K., 180
Krass, A. S., 190
Kress, C., 128, 226
Krug, P., 248
Krüger-Sprengel, F., 121
Krutsch, W., 75--6, 188
Kuehl, D. T., 97
Kuper, J., 142
Kwakwa, E., 51--2, 82
Lapidoth, R., 46
Lattanzi, F., 232
Lauterpacht, H., 53, 134, 210, 229, 247
Leckow, R., 222
Leeb, Ritter von, W. von, 134
Leibler, A., 180, 191
Levie, H. S., 37, 39, 65, 69--70, 107, 114
Lijnzaad, L., 194
Lippman, M., 242
Lodgaard, S., 71
Low, L., 196
Lowe, A. V., 76
Loye, D., 60
Lüder, S. R., 128, 226
Macalister-Smith, P., 137
MacArthur, D., 228
McCall, J. H., 73
McClintock, A. D., 122, 131
McCormack, T. L. H., 75, 121
McCoubrey, H., 19, 124, 127, 172--3, 181
McDonald, G. K., 243, 247
McGregor, M. E., 187
McNeill, J. H., 192
Madders, K. J., 207
Major, M. F., 51
Makarczyk, J., 182
Malherbe, P., 4, 27, 64--5, 88, 94, 99, 148, 199, 244
Mann, F. A., 207
Mann, H., 142
Marauhn, T., 185
Maresca, L., 67
Martens, de, M., 56--7
Maslen, S., 67
Matheson, M. J., 118
Mayer, J., 133
Meron, T., 29, 32, 44, 57, 83, 225
Merrills, J. G., 24
Merryman, J. H., 158
Meyer, D. A., 158
Meyer, J. M., 116
Meyer, M. A., 125, 174, 186
Meyrowitz, H., 59, 86
Mitchell, A. D., 242
Miyazaki, S., 20
Momtaz, D., 193--4
Moore, J. N., 145, 206
Moreno, R. A., 110
Mose, G. M., 161
Mudge, G. A., 136
Muntz, J., 178
Murphy, F., 239
Murphy, J. F., 126
Murphy, S. D., 119
Mustoe, J. P., 69
Myjer, E. P. J., 63, 76
Nahlik, S. E., 159--60
Nanda, V. P., 124
Nash (Leich), M., 66, 71--2
Nordquist, M. H., 104
Norton, L. G., 113
Nowak, M., 22
Nuiten, A. R., 62
Nurick, L., 40, 133--4
Nwogugu, E. I., 106
Obradovic, K., 88
O’Donnell, B. T., 123, 206
Oeter, S., 62, 86, 100, 116, 118--19, 126, 173, 175, 190, 206--7, 220
O’Keefe, R., 157
Okorodudu-Fubara, M. T., 194
Oppenheim, L., 6, 53, 134, 210, 247
Oppenheimer, P. H., 225
Parks, W. H., 72, 91, 96, 116, 121--3, 131, 239
Parlow, A., 68
Parsons, R. J., 197
Partsch, K. J., xix, 156
Peters, A., 73
Philipp, C. E., 47
Pictet, J. S., 42, 84, 89, 91--2, 100--1, 112, 114, 116, 120, 125, 127--9, 132--3, 138, 144, 146, 151, 162, 173, 184, 191, 224
Pilloud, C., 42, 84, 89, 91--2, 100--1, 112, 114, 116, 120, 125, 127--9, 132--3, 138, 151, 162, 173, 184, 191, 224
Plant, G., 191, 194, 196
Pocar, F., 107
Politakis, G. P., 54, 104, 106
Popovic, N. A. F., 195
Prokosch, E., 62
Provost, R., 25, 139
Rabus, W. G., 42, 215--16
Randelzhofer, A., 86, 120
Rauch, E., 20, 66, 85, 92, 120, 140, 182, 210
Reilly, J. A., 110
Reisman, W. M., 123
Renault, L., 17
Rezek, J. F., 168
Richards, P. J., 186
Roach, J. A., 144, 171
Robblee, P. A., 57
Roberts, A., 119, 191, 195
Roberts, G. B., 46, 135, 183, 224
Robertson, A. H., 24, 73
Robertson, H. B., 82, 87, 107--8, 110, 145
Robertson, M., 73
Robinson, N. A., 195
Roerich, N., 156
Rogers, A. P. V., 4, 27, 64--6, 84, 87--8, 90--4, 99, 111, 136, 148, 162, 179, 181, 184, 194, 199, 244
Ronzitti, N., 52, 76, 97, 102, 106, 122, 155, 179, 188
Rosas, A., 28, 31, 188
Rose, S., 133
Rosenblad, E., 84, 111, 134, 139, 222
Rosenne, S., 7, 166
Ross, M. A., 194
Roucounas, E., 145
Rowe, P., 87, 95, 118, 185, 199
Sánchez Rodriguez, L. I., 179
Sandoz, Y., xvii, 25, 143, 148--51, 167--9, 172
Sands, P., 79, 193
Sassòli, M., 85, 91, 124, 189
Schabas, W. A., 232, 249
Schafer, B. K., 191
Scheuner, U., 28
Schindler, D., xviii
Schlögel, A., 10
Schmitt, M. N., 55, 60, 79, 82, 84, 94, 96, 105--6, 118, 123, 137, 186, 190, 199, 206, 236
Schwabach, A., 127
Schwarzenberger, G., 39--40, 90, 221
Schwebel, S. M., 78
Scott, J. B., 199--200
Seacor, J. E., 195
Sersic, M., 162
Shahabuddeen, M., 79
Shamgar, M., 219
Shearer, I. A., 155
Simonds, S. N., 180
Smidt, M. L., 240
Sofaer, A. D., 46
Solf, W. A., xix, 37, 46, 52, 59--60, 80, 85--7, 91, 101, 114--16, 122, 128--9, 132, 136, 141, 144, 151--2, 161--2, 174, 190, 201--2, 204--5, 213, 221
Solomon, S. A., 69
Spaight, J. M., 109
Stannard, C., 189
Starke, J. G., 101
Stein, T., 110
Steinkamm, A. A., 214
Stephen, N., 248
Stern, B., 194
Stone, H. F., 30
Stone, J., 101, 111, 124, 133
Svenson-McCarthy, A.-L., 23
Swaak-Goldman, O., 243
Swinarski, C., 20, 182
Symonides, J., 160
Szasz, P. C., 196--7
Tanja, G. J., 103, 120, 142, 194
Tarasofsky, R. G., 179
Taulbee, J. L., 51
Thomas, A. R., xvi
Toman, J., xviii, 98, 157, 159--60
Torrelli, M., 101, 140
Townsend, K. V. R., 115
Toyoda, Admiral, 239
Trapp, R., 75--6, 188
Treves, T., 102
Triffterer, O., 130, 186, 208, 248
Tucker, R. W., 108
Turner, L. L., 113
Turner, R. F., 145, 206
Uhler, O. M., 135
Venturini, G., 53, 232
Verwey, W. D., 180, 182, 227
Vetter, G. R., 242
Vincent, C. P., 137
Vinuesa, R. E., 23
Vohrah, L. C., 247
Voon, T., 119
Wachenfeld, M. G., 104
Walker, G. K., 104, 181, 184
Warner, D., 225
Watts, A., 6
Waxman, M. C., 134
Wedgwood, R., 123
Wenger, C. F., 161--2
Westing, A. H., 179--80, 187
White, N. D., 124
Wilcox, W. A., 183
Wolfrum, R., 47, 69
Wortley, B. A., 86
Wright, Lord, 227
Wright, Q., 225
Wunsch, C. R., 178
Yamamoto, I., 95
Yingling, R. T., 35
Yusuf, A. A., 51
Yuzon, F. J., 180
Zedalis, R. J., 192
Zegveld, L., 66, 93, 187, 202--3, 226
Zemanek, K., 54
Zengel, P., 95
Zimmermann, A., 214, 219
Zöckler, M. C., 73
absolute contraband, 217
abuse of protection. See cessation of protection
accessories and accomplices, 33
acid rain, 179
active participation in hostilities, 27–8, 113, 129, 150–2
active personality, 236
actus reus, 243
aerial photography, 208–9
Afghanistan War, 14, 16, 31, 47–50, 119, 152
air pollution, 176, 191–2
air warfare
aircraft in distress, 144–5
civilian aircraft, 109–10
cultural property and places of worship, 155
explosive bullets, 64
military advantage, 86
military objectives, 108–12
‘no-fly’ zones, 110
strategic bombing, 110–12
‘target area’ bombing, 110–12, 124–5, 222
airborne troops, 109, 144
aircraft. See civilian aircraft; medical aircraft; military aircraft
airports, 88, 97, 110, 125, 159, 256
air-raid shelters, 117, 149
Al Qaeda, 14, 44, 47, 49–50
Amazon River Basin, 181
ambulances. See medical units
ambulance drivers. See medical personnel
ambushes, 199, 206
animals, 65, 75, 85
Antarctica, 77
archaeological sites, 157
archipelagic waters, 102
archives, 157
Argentina, 107
armbands, 147
armed reprisals, 220
arms control, 63
arrows, 63
arson, 31, 194
art works, 65, 157, 160–3, 224
assassination, 199, 202
assaults, 128, 214
atmosphere, 178
attacks, definition, 84
attribution of an act to the State, 252
aut dedere aut judicare, 237
babies, 143
bacteriological weapons. See biological weapons
ball-bearing factories, 88
balloons, 111
barges, 97–8
barracks, 88
bayonets, 61
Belgium, 252
belligerent occupation, 2. See also occupied territories
belligerent reprisals, 220–7, 255
biological weapons, 55, 57, 76
blackout measures, 149
blimps, 108
blind firing, 118
blinding lasers, 60, 72–3, 256
blockades, 104–6, 133, 137–8, 216–17, 257
blood transfusion centres, 167
booby-traps, 62, 65–7, 207, 224
books, 157
booty of war, 215
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 15
bounty, 199
bridgeheads, 92
bridges, 89, 92–3, 97, 121, 125, 162, 256
broadcasting stations, 25, 98, 127
buglers, 146
bullets, 62–4, 72
burial sites, 65
cables, 102
camouflage, 38, 187, 200, 206
canals, 89, 97, 132
cargoes, 215–17
carrying arms openly, 33, 35, 38–9, 42–3, 45–6, 48
cartel ships, 169
ceasefires, 143, 199
cessation of protection, 27, 129--31, 149--56, 158--60, 162, 164--5, 171--2, 174
chaplains. See religious personnel
chemical weapons, 73–6, 187–8
chemists. See medical personnel
children
booby-traps against, 65
cessation of protection, 150
as combatants, 142–3, 232
day care centres, 91–2, 121
sieges, 134
special protection, 141–3
toys, 65, 96
churches. See places of worship
civilian aircraft, 35, 109–10, 217
civil defence personnel, 148–51
civil wars. See non-international armed conflicts
civilian objects
attacks on, 230
belligerent reprisals against, 223, 226
cultural property. See cultural property
distinction principle. See distinction principle
definition, 114
merchant ships, 102–3
and military objectives, 82–7
natural environment, 186
removal from military objectives, 121, 129
civilians
attached to armed forces, 34–5, 42, 113–14
belligerent reprisals against, 223--5
booby-traps against, 66
cessation of protection, 27, 129–31, 149–52
children. See children
civilian population, 114, 173, 214
collateral damage. See collateral damage
definition, 27–8, 113–14
direct attacks on, 49, 115–16
employed by armed forces, 92, 113, 119
feigning status of, 29, 200, 203
incendiaries against, 71
indiscriminate attacks against, 55–6, 116–19, 121
and landmines, 68
light weapons, 152
looting by, 214–15
morale shattering operations, 116
protection, 29–30, 129–31, 149–52, 256–7
‘quasi-combatants’, 124
removal, 121, 129, 136
residential areas, 71–2, 93, 218–19
starvation, 131–40, 256
transfer to occupied territories, 231–3
warnings, 127–8
women. See women
clausula si omnes, 8
climate changes, 178, 181
clothing, 132, 137
cloud seeding, 181
cluster bombs, 62
coal, 96
coalition warfare, 86, 222
coastal bombardment, 107–8, 154–5, 167
codes, 171, 207–8
coercion, 246
collateral damage
dangerous forces, 172–4
definition, 115
environment, 177, 183
legitimate damage, 123–5, 129
medical units, 172
minimizing, 125–8
nuclear weapons, 79
precautions in attack, 125–8
proportionality, 59, 94, 119–23, 231
and ‘target area’ bombing, 111
and targeting, 126–7
and timing, 127
collective punishment, 21
combatants
booby-traps against, 66
children, 142–3, 232
definition, 27
hors de combat, 28, 58, 60, 94, 145, 150, 231
identification, 29, 45
lawful and unlawful. See unlawful combatants
‘quasi-combatants’, 124
surrender. See surrender
unnecessary suffering, 56–62, 65–6
women, 142
command and control centres, 89, 117
command responsibility
accountability for acts of subordinates, 238–42
civilian superiors, 242–3
issuing orders, 237–8
knowledge of crimes, 238–42
commandos, 146, 199
computers, 84, 96–7, 206, 256
conditional contraband, 217
Congo, 252
constructive knowledge, 240
contact zones, 91, 93, 101, 110, 170
continental shelf, 102
contraband, 104--5, 215–17
contractors, 34--5, 113–14
convoys, 103–4
corsairs, 28
counterfeiting, 207
countermeasures, 220
cremation sites, 65
crimes against humanity, 233
crimes against peace, 233
criminal negligence, 241, 244
cultural property
air warfare, 155
belligerent reprisals against, 223
cessation of protection, 153–6, 158–60, 164–5
definition, 157
enhanced protection, 165–6
generally, 152–6
international emblem, 156, 159, 204
International Register, 159–60
items of great importance, 156–7
items of very great importance, 158–9
and military necessity, 158–61, 164–5
naval warfare, 154–5
ordinary protection, 158
Pan-American Union, 155–6
pillage, 214
special protection, 158–62, 166
customary international law
belligerent reprisals, 221, 226
booty of war, 215
chemical weapons, 74–5
child soldiers, 142
command responsibility, 243
cultural property, 164
dangerous forces, 173
definition, 5–6
environmental protection, 177, 185, 187, 193, 196
forests, 187
herbicides, 188
hostages, 227
‘human shields’, 130--1
interaction with treaty law, 7–10, 61–2, 255
judicial guarantees, 32–3
landmines, 69
levée en masse, 42
Martens clause, 56
mercenaries, 51
military objectives, 82
nuclear weapons, 77, 79
opinio juris, 5, 193
perfidy and ruses of war, 199
poison, 63
prisoner of war status, 29, 33–44, 203
prize, 217
prohibited weapons, 61, 255
proportionality, 119
and Protocol I, 11, 255
regional, 6
sieges, 133–5
starvation of civilians, 132
State practice, 5–6, 17, 137, 226
surrendering forces, 145
torpedoes, 71
unlawful combatants, 34, 42, 44
war crimes, 232–3
Czechoslovakia, 95
‘dambusters’, 173
dams, 93, 172–5, 224
dangerous forces, 93–4, 172–5, 224
de facto governments, 16
dead persons, 21, 65, 214
death certificates, 21
deception, 37, 39, 198–208
declarations of war, 15
decoys, 200, 206
decryption, 171
defences
admissible defences, 244–9
defence of oneself and others, 249
duress, 245–8, 251
inadmissible defence pleas, 250–3
insanity, 248
intoxication, 249
manifest illegality, 245
mens rea, 243–5, 251
mistake of fact, 244, 251
mistake of law, 244–5, 251
mitigation of punishment, 237, 253–4
national law, obedience to, 250
official immunities, 252–3
superior orders, obedience to, 237, 250–1, 253–4
defended localities, 99–101, 107–8, 256
degrading and inhuman treatment, 23, 32, 230, 232
dentists. See medical personnel
depleted uranium projectiles, 62
deportations, 229--30
depots, 88, 107, 167
derogations from treaty obligations, 22–3, 132
destruction of property, 17, 192, 201, 213–19, 230–1
diplomatic immunity, 252
direct participation in hostilities, 27–8, 113, 129, 150–2
dirigibles, 108
discipline, 39, 44, 228
distinction principle
civilians and combatants, 27–9, 37, 51, 55, 61--2, 69, 82--7, 115, 118, 255–6
lawful and unlawful combatants, 29–52
military objectives and civilian objects, 82–7, 256
distinctive emblems. See emblems
distress, aircraft in, 109, 144–5, 150
distress signals, 204, 207
docks. See ports and harbours
doctors. See medical personnel
domestic legislation, 30–2, 228, 236–7, 250
doubt, 48, 90, 235
drinking water, 63, 97, 132, 134–5
drones, 108
drought, 179
drugs, 249
drummers, 146
‘dum-dum’ bullets, 64
dummies, 207
duress, 245–8, 251
dykes, 93, 172–4, 224
earthquakes, 178, 180
economic targets, 87
electricity grids, 96–7
emblems
fixed distinct, 33–8, 40–6
hospital ships, 168
medical aircraft, 169–70
medical personnel, 147
medical units, 166
misuse, 200–1, 203–6
religious personnel, 148
Taliban, 48
encryption, 171
environment
belligerent reprisals against, 224–6
as civilian object, 184, 186
definition, 184
environmental modification techniques, 177–81, 189–91, 194–5, 256
Gulf War and oil wells, 191–6
importance, 176–7
poisonous gases, 176, 179
and proportionality, 176–7, 186, 192
and protection of population, 182--3
as victim and as weapon, 189
widespread, long-lasting, severe damage to, 178–9, 181, 186, 188, 190–1, 193–4, 231
errors, 115, 119, 126, 244–5, 251
escape, 151, 205
espionage. See spies
European Court of Human Rights, 25
excessive damage. See proportionality
exclusion zones, 106–7, 110
exclusive economic zones, 102
expanding bullets, 64
experiments, medical and scientific, 24–5, 230–1
explosives, 36, 60, 63–5, 194
exports, 103, 217
extradition, 237
Falkland Islands War, 107
false codes, 207
false signals, 206, 231
famines, 133, 137
fire-fighting, 149
first aid, 167
fishing boats, 169
fixed distinctive emblems. See emblems
flag-bearers, 146
flags of truce, 199–200, 202, 204, 208, 230–1
flame-throwers, 72
‘fog of war’, 117
foodstuffs, 63, 131–2, 135, 215
force protection, 249
foreign legions, 40–1, 51
forests, 181, 187
fortifications, 88, 218
France, 40, 42, 47, 51, 90, 108
franc-tireurs, 37
free goods, 217
freedom of navigation, 69
freedom of thought, conscience and religion, 23
gas warfare, 73–6, 224, 231
General Belgrano, 107
‘Geneva law’, 9–13
genocide, 233
Germany, 74, 89, 112, 118, 137, 173, 211, 229, 247
gliders, 108
government offices, 98
Guantanamo Bay, 50
guerrillas, 36, 40–3
Gulf War
aerial bombings, 117–18
blockade, 105
destruction of bridges, 93
electricity grids, 96
looting, 214–15
military use of hospitals, 172
oil well fires, 191–6, 218–19
retreating troops, 94
‘shock and awe’, 116
Ur temple, 158
wanton destruction, 218–19
Gurkhas, 51
‘Hague law’, 9--13
Hague Rules of Air Warfare, 12, 38, 64, 82, 85, 109–11, 144, 155, 207, 209–10, 217
Hague Rules for the Control of Radio in Time of War, 207
hand grenades, 39, 65, 218
harbours. See ports and harbours
Heads of States, 98--9, 252
helicopters, 94, 169
herbicides, 75, 187–8, 195
high seas, 69, 102, 181
high velocity bullets, 62
high-altitude bombings, 118–19, 121
historic monuments, 65, 153, 155–7, 160–3, 224–6
hors de combat, 28, 58, 60, 94, 136, 145, 150–1, 202, 231
horses, 85
hospital ships, 93, 102, 155, 166, 168–9, 171, 216
hospitals, 86, 93, 97, 147, 153–5, 167, 172
hostages, 24, 227, 229–30
houses, demolition of, 218–19
human rights
and belligerent reprisals, 225–6
children, 142
derogations from treaty obligations, 22–3
and international humanitarian law, 20
non-derogable rights, 23–5
and punishment for others’ crimes, 33
restrictions, 22
‘human shields’, 129–31, 136, 256
humanitarian assistance
generally, 133, 137–40, 257
impeding, 232
lacunas, 257
occupied territories, 138–9, 257
relief personnel, 149, 230
humanitarian considerations, 1, 13, 16--18
hunting, 152
ICTY statute, 60, 63, 99, 163, 219, 227, 229, 240--1
ignorantia facti excusat, 244
ignorantia juris non excusat, 245
immunities, 252–3
incendiaries, 71–2, 187
incitement to rebel, 207
indecent assault, 141–2
India, 64
indiscriminate attacks, 1, 55–6, 116–19, 121
individuals, targeting of, 94–5, 199
Indonesia, 36, 40–1, 43
industrial plants, 88, 95–6, 124, 127, 256
infirm, 134, 143, 167, 169
inflammable projectiles, 63–4
inhuman and degrading treatment, 23, 32, 230, 232
insanity, 248
insignia. See emblems
intelligence gathering, 27, 89–90, 103–4, 172, 208, 213
‘interdiction fire’, 118
intermingling civilians and combatants, 129–30, 256
internal waters, 102
International Committee of the Red Cross
blockades, 138
command responsibility, 240
environmental protection, 184
feigning civilian status, 203
landmines, 67
military objectives, 89
mistake of fact, 244
occupied territories, 139
International Court of Justice (ICJ), 6, 13, 15, 23, 55--7, 61, 70, 82, 115, 176, 185, 193, 252--3, 255
International Criminal Court (ICC), 229
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 15, 226, 228--9, 241, 243--4, 247--8, 251, 254
international humanitarian law, 13, 20
International Military Tribunal (IMT), 10, 54, 63, 106, 200, 228--30, 246, 250, 252--3
International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), 10, 228–9, 239
internment in neutral countries, 35
interpreters, 146
inter-State armed conflicts, 2, 14–16
intoxication, 249
Iran, 110
Iran–Iraq War, 75, 104, 106, 176
Iraq, 75, 118, 158, 196; See also Gulf War
irregular forces, 36–7, 39–43, 46–7, 49
irrigation works, 132
Israel
Beirut bombardment, 131
booty of war, 215
Church of the Nativity, 163
demolition of houses, 218–19
legislation on unlawful combatants, 31–2
individual targeting, 94–5
Iraqi Scud missiles, 118
and PFLP, 39–40
Red Shield of David, 166, 205
settlement policy, 233
Italy, 89, 236
Japan, 33, 95, 229
Jordan, 39
journalists, 34–5, 149
judicial guarantees, unlawful combatants, 32–3
jungle trails, 92
jurisdiction
active personality, 236
immunity, 252–3
passive personality, 236
protective principle, 236
territoriality, 236
universality, 236
jus ad bellum, 2, 4--5, 78, 196, 233
jus cogens, 7, 24
jus dispositivum, 7
jus in bello. See LOIAC
kamikaze pilots, 33
kitchen utensils, 65--6
Korea, 69, 130
Kosovo air campaign
attacks on bridges, 92
attacks on broadcasting station, 25, 98, 127–8
attacks on trains, 97
environmental damage, 177
high-altitude bombings, 118–19
oil refinery bombing, 176
Kuwait. See Gulf War
laboratories, 88
land warfare, 99–101, 153–4, 166–8
landmines
anti-handling devices, 67–9
anti-personnel, 67–9
anti-vehicle, 65, 67, 69
belligerent reprisals, use in, 224
recording of minefields, 67
remotely delivered, 66–7
self-deactivation, 67
lasers, 60, 72–3, 256
lawful combatants. See unlawful combatants
League of Nations, 11
Lebanon, 131
legal advisers, 26
letter bombs, 65
levée en masse, 34–5, 42, 113
libraries, 157
life, right to, 23–4
lifeboats, 105, 168
light arms, 151–2, 171
lighthouses, 108
LOIAC
applicability, 14–16, 22, 31
and belligerent reprisals, 222
checks-and-balances system, 17–20
customary law and treaties, 5–9
derogations, 22
dissemination, 25–6, 245
equal application, 4--5, 78
history, 9–12
and human rights, 20–5
implementation, 257
lex specialis, 23
main current problems, 255–7
and military necessity, 16–20
nature, 4–5
review, 257
sources, 5–12
and technology, 256
terminology, 4, 12–14
Lusitania, 123
Malaysia, 36, 40–1, 43
manuscripts, 157
maritime warfare. See naval warfare
markings
dangerous forces, 174
hospital ships, 168, 169
medical aircraft, 169, 170
medical units, 166
military aircraft, 38
military vehicles, 38, 205
Martens Clause, 7, 56–7
maternity cases, 134, 143, 167, 169
media. See journalists
medical aircraft, 166, 169–70, 172
medical equipment, 134, 167, 169
medical experimentation, 24–5, 230–1
medical personnel
armbands, 147
belligerent reprisals against, 223
cessation of protection, 150–1
civilian personnel, 147
definition, 146–7
as ‘human shields’, 130
non-combatants, 35, 147
protection, 93, 146–7
renunciation of rights, 20
sieges, 134
voluntary societies, 146
medical units
acquiring military advantage, 172
acts harmful to enemy, 171--2
attacks on, 232
belligerent reprisals against, 223
booby-traps against, 65
cessation of protection, 150–1, 171–2
collateral damage, 172
conditions of immunity, 171–2
cooks and cleaners, 146
definition, 167
emblems, 166, 201
hospital ships, 168–9
land warfare, 166–8
medical aircraft, 169–70
protection, 93, 166–72
shielding military objectives, 171
vehicles, 167–8
mens rea, 186, 243–5, 251
mercenaries, 40, 47, 50–2
merchant ships
armed merchant ships, 52–4, 103–4
auxiliaries to armed forces, 103–4
belligerent acts, 103–4
blockades, 104–6
contraband, 215–17
contributing to military action, 103–4
converted to hospital ships, 168
converted to warships, 52–3
convoys, 103–4
crews, 35, 53–4
destruction after capture, 104–5
enemy character, 216
exclusion zones, 106–7
in military ports, 92
intelligence gathering, 103–4
military objectives, 53, 102–5
neutral ships, 103–4, 217
orders to stop, 103–4
prize, 102–3, 105, 215–17
reflagging, 104
visit and search, 104, 217
midwives, 147
military advantage, 85–7, 114, 123, 172, 192, 257
military aircraft
crews, 38, 144
disabled, 108–9
explosive projectiles against, 64
identification, 38
military objective, 88, 108–9
parachutists from aircraft in distress, 109, 144–5, 150
propaganda use, 207
military bases, 88, 113, 119, 121, 129, 132, 219
military hospitals, 93
military manuals, 6
military necessity
and cultural property, 158, 159–60, 164–5
destruction of property, 192–3
and environmental protection, 176–7, 192–3
and humanitarian considerations, 13, 16–20
and ‘scorched earth’ policy, 133
military objectives
air warfare, 108–12
animals, 85
bridges, 89, 92–3
broadcasting stations, 98
civilian ports and airports, 97
defended localities, 99–101
definition, 83–4, 257
economic targets, 87
electricity grids, 96–7
exempt objectives, 93–4, 174
general problems, 94–9
government offices, 49, 98
human beings, 85
individuals, targeting, 94–5, 199
industrial plants, 88, 95–6, 124, 127, 256
lighthouses, 108
list, 88–9
location, 83, 85, 87, 91–3, 162, 187
merchant ships, 53, 102–5
military objectives (cont.)
military advantage, 83, 85–7
nature, 83, 85, 87–9, 92--3
naval warfare, 102–8
oil, coal and other minerals, 96, 192
origins, 82
police, 95
political leaders, 99
and proportionality, 120
purpose, 83, 85, 87, 89–90, 92--3
retreating troops, 94
targeting, 126–7
trains and trucks, 97–8
transport arteries, 89, 97–8
treacherous killing, 94, 199–200, 231
undefended localities, 99–101, 231
use, 83, 85, 87, 90--3, 162, 171--2, 187
warships, 99, 102
military supplies, 88
minerals, 96
mines. See booby-traps; landmines; naval mines
minimizing injury, 1, 9, 17, 125--8
Ministries of Defence, 49, 89, 98
misinformation, 200, 206–7
missiles, 94, 118
mistake of fact, 244, 251
mistake of law, 244–5, 251
mitigation of punishment, 237, 253–4
mock operations, 200, 206
Monte Cassino, 90
moral choice, 246, 248
morale shattering, 116
mosques. See places of worship
motorways, 89, 92, 97, 125, 256
mountain passes, 92
mules, 85
munitions dumps, 88
munitions factories, 124, 129, 152
murder
defence of duress, 247–8
prisoners of war, 19, 225
surrendered combatants, 231
and warfare, 31
wounded and sick, 143
museums, 156–7
napalm, 62, 72, 195
national law, obedience to, 250
nationality, 40–3, 49–50, 52, 141, 211, 236
Nativity, Church of the, 163
NATO. See Kosovo air campaign
naval mines, 69–71
naval warfare
areas of, 102
blockades, 104–6, 137–8, 216–17, 257
coastal bombardment, 107–8
contraband, 215–17
cultural property and places of worship, 154–5
and environmental protection, 184
exclusion zones, 106–7
false colours, 206
Hague and Geneva Conventions, 12–13
hospitals. See hospital ships
and merchant ships, 102–5
military objectives, 102–8
mines, 69--71
privateering, 28
prize, 102–3, 105, 115, 215–17
wounded and sick, 143
navigation, freedom of, 69
necessity, 246
Netherlands, 211
neutral emblems, flags and uniforms, 200–1, 203, 206, 208
neutral vessels, 69, 103–6, 216–17
neutrality, 2, 57, 78, 222, 236
‘no-fly’ zones, 110
non-combatants. See civilians
non-detectable fragments, 64–5
non-international armed conflicts, 2, 11, 14, 32, 64, 188
no-quarter policy, 145–6, 231, 233–4
nuclear power stations, 93, 172–5, 224
nuclear weapons
applicability of LOIAC, 77, 79, 256
collateral damage, 79
indiscriminate effects, 77
legality, 77–80, 255
and neutrality principle, 78
tactical nuclear weapons, 78–9
Nuremberg ‘Subsequent Proceedings’, 18, 134, 218, 227, 238, 246–7, 250
nurses. See medical personnel
occupied territories
cultural and religious property, 154
destruction of property, 192, 218–19
humanitarian assistance, 138–9
prisoners of war, 35
spies, 213
transfer of populations, 231–3
oil installations, 96, 176
oil tankers, 176
old people, 134, 143
open cities, 101
opinio juris, 5, 193
orderlies. See medical personnel
outer space, 77, 178
ozone layer, 178
Palestinians, 39–40, 94–5, 163
Pan-American Union, 155–6
parachutists, 109, 144–5, 150
parlementaires, 146, 199
passenger liners, 89–90, 103–5, 123
passive personality, 236
‘passive’ precautions, 129, 175
perfidy
feigning civilian status, 200, 203
feigning incapacitation, 200, 202–3
feigning surrender, 200, 202
flags, emblems and uniforms, 199–206
meaning, 200–1
and ruses of war, 198–208
treacherous killing, 94, 199–200, 231
petrochemical industries, 95, 179
petrol filling stations, 96
pharmaceutical stores, 167
philanthropic missions, 154
photographers, 149
pillage, 214–15, 229, 231
pipelines, 102
pirates, 28
places of worship
belligerent reprisals against, 224
booby-traps, 65
civilian objects, 86, 90–1, 152
generally, 152–66
naval warfare, 154–5
special protection, 152–3
poison, 63, 230--1
police, 95
political leaders, 99
ports and harbours, 88, 92, 97, 107–8, 159, 216, 256
pourparlers, 199
power plants, 89, 96–7
precautions in attack, 125–9, 164
precision-guided munitions, 96, 111, 121, 126–7, 256
pregnancy, enforced, 232
pregnant women, 134, 143
presumptions
cargoes, 216
civilian objects, 90–1, 93, 152
irrebuttable, 245
prisoner of war status, 235
sanity, 248
prisoner of war status
belonging to party to the conflict, 39–40, 44
carrying arms openly, 33, 35, 38–9, 42–3, 45–6, 48
civilian crews, 35, 54
civilians attached to armed forces, 34–5, 42, 114
doubt, 48, 235
evidence, 41
fixed distinct emblem, 33–8, 40–6
Geneva conditions, 34–7, 39–44
Hague conditions, 33–4, 37–9, 41–4
irregular forces, 36–7, 39–40, 41–2
levée en masse, 34–5, 42
LOIAC observance, 39, 43–5, 49, 53, 239
medical and religious personnel, 35, 147
mercenaries, 50
non-allegiance to detaining power, 40–3, 52
organization 34, 39, 41, 44
Protocol I, 44–7
regular forces, 36–8
subordination to a responsible commander, 33–5, 37, 41, 44
war correspondents, 35, 149
prisoners of war
belligerent reprisals against, 223, 225
cartel ships, 169
detention, 28
escape, 205
hors de combat, 28
hostages, 227
as ‘human shields’, 130
meaning, 28–9
medical experimentation, 24–5
and military necessity, 19
murder, 19, 225
repatriation, 236
tear gas, 76
treatment, 2, 29, 230
privateers, 28, 52–4
prize, 102–3, 105, 215–17
projectiles, 62–4, 72
propaganda, 207
proportionality
belligerent reprisals, 221, 225–6
civilian casualties, 119–23, 231
collateral damage, 59, 94, 119–23, 231, 257
destruction of military objectives, 94
environmental damage, 176–7, 186, 192
and ‘human shields’, 131
proportionality (cont.)
precautions in attack, 125–9
principle, 1, 255
weapons, 59
prostitution, enforced, 141–2, 232
protected persons
attacks on, 231
belligerent reprisals against, 223–4
renunciation of rights, 20
protective principle, 236
psychological warfare, 207
public emergencies, 22–3
‘quasi-combatants’, 124
radio distress signals, 207
radio stations, 25, 98, 127–8
railways, 89, 92, 97–8, 101, 121, 132, 159
rainforests, 181
random bombing, 118
rape, 141–2, 232
ravines, 92
recognition of governments, 16, 35, 47–8, 113
recognition of States, 16
reconnaissance, 210
Red Crescent, 166, 168, 201
Red Cross. See also International Committee of the Red Cross
armbands, 147
emblems, 166, 168–70, 201
humanitarian assistance, 138–9
origins, 10
societies, 146–7, 168
special protection, 146
Red Lion and Sun, 166, 168, 201
Red Shield of David, 166, 205
reflagging, 104
refugees, 130
regular forces, prisoner of war status, 36–8
relief personnel, 149–50
religious objects, 65
religious personnel
belligerent reprisals against, 223
definition, 148
identification, 148
immunity, 148
non-combatants, 35, 148
sieges, 134
renunciation of rights, 20--1
repatriation, prisoners of war, 236
resistance movements, 34, 36, 41
restatements of law, 12
retreating troops, 94, 193
rivers, 89, 93, 97, 133–4, 162
roads, 89, 92, 97, 101, 125
rubber bullets, 60
Ruhr, 112, 173
rules of engagement, 4
ruses of war
definition, 200, 206
legitimate ruses, 200, 206–7
and perfidy, 198–208
sabotage, 36, 39, 195, 210
safe passage, 136–7
San Remo Manual, 12, 53, 70–1, 83–4, 87, 102–6, 155, 171, 193, 206, 216–17
schools, 90–1, 93, 130, 152, 163, 231, 244
scientific collections, 157
‘scorched earth’ policy, 133, 193, 218
Scud missiles, 118
sea warfare. See naval warfare
seabed, 71, 77, 102
seizure of property, 213–19
self-defence, 4, 78
self-destruct mechanisms, 62, 66–7
September 11 attacks, 14, 49
Serbia-Montenegro, 15, 98
ships. See also naval warfare
cartel ships, 169
hospitals. See hospital ships
merchant ships. See merchant ships
neutral, 69, 103–6, 216–17
passenger liners, 89–90, 103--5, 123
religious, philanthropic and scientific missions, 154
warships. See warships
shipwrecked persons, 28, 45, 144, 150, 169, 223
shipyards, 121
‘shock and awe’, 116
‘short of war’ hostilities, 2, 15–16
shot guns, 62
sick. See wounded and sick
sick-bays, 168, 171
siege warfare, 133–7, 153
signals, 72, 170
Singapore, 36
slavery, 23, 142, 229
‘smart’ bombs. See precision-guided munitions
smoke, 72, 191–2
snipers, 86, 95, 123, 199
sound technicians, 149
spears, 62–3
spies
civilian spies, 211–12
clandestinity, 209–10, 213
definition of espionage, 208–10
delivering despatches, 209, 213
false pretences, 210, 213
occupied territories, 213
parachutists, 144
prosecution, 210–13, 234
and sabotage, 210
status of, 210–13
unlawful combatants, 47, 211
not war criminals, 210–11
zones of operations, 209, 213
Stalingrad, 100
starvation of civilians
blockades, 133, 137–8
generally, 131–40, 256
humanitarian assistance, 137–40
siege warfare, 133–7
State practice, 6, 17, 137
State responsibility, 196, 228, 252
State rights, 20–1
statehood, criteria, 16
statute of limitations, 234–5
steel works, 95
sterilization, enforced, 232
strategic bombing, 110–12
stretcher-bearers. See medical personnel
submarines, 53–4, 69–70, 74, 102, 105, 108, 143
suicide bombers, 33, 171, 256
superfluous injury. See unnecessary suffering
superior orders, obedience to, 250–1, 253–4
surgeons. See medical personnel
surprise, 128
surrender
and air warfare, 108
combatants, 28, 145–6
feigning surrender, 200, 202
flags. See white flags
killing surrendering combatants, 145, 231
methods, 108, 145, 207
negotiations, 199
parachutists, 109, 144
siege warfare, 136
sutlers, 34
synagogues. See places of worship
swamps, 92
Taliban, 14–16, 47–50
tanks, 38, 96, 172, 205, 207, 218
‘target area’ bombing, 110–11, 124–5, 222
target identification, 118–19, 125–6
targeting, 126–7
tear gas, 60, 75–6
technical malfunction, 115, 119
technology, and LOIAC, 256
television stations, 25, 98, 127–8
territorial seas, 102
territoriality, 236
terrorism, 14, 21, 33, 64, 95, 116, 218
torpedo boats, 102
torpedoes, 71
torture, 7, 23–4, 149, 230
toys, 65, 96
tracer bullets, 72
tractors, 96, 118
training, 2–3, 25, 88
trains, 97–8, 121, 125, 130
transfer of populations, 231–3
transshipment, 217
treachery. See perfidy
treason, 211
treaties
conflict with jus cogens, 7
declaratory, 7–9, 11, 72, 74
definition, 7
derogations, 22–3
general participation clauses, 8, 10
interaction with customary law, 7--10
main LOIAC treaties, 9–12
material breach, 224
mutual relations clauses, 8
trucks, 97–8
trumpeters, 146
tsunamis, 178, 180–1
tunnels, 89
undefended localities, 99–101, 107–8, 231
UNESCO, 12, 157
uniforms. See also emblems
CIA in Afghanistan, 50
civilians in, 113
misuse, 200–1, 203–6
and prisoner of war status, 36–8, 41, 45–6
spies, 212
Taliban, 48
World War II, 95
United Kingdom, 51, 53–4, 64, 98, 107, 226
United Nations
emblems, 200–1, 203–5, 208, 211
forces, 5
General Assembly, 77, 142, 178, 193
Secretary-General, 241
Security Council, 4, 195–6
United States
Afghanistan War. See Afghanistan War
CIA agents in the field, 50
Civil War, 87
command responsibility, 238–9
detention of unlawful combatants, 31
gas warfare, 74
Guantanamo Bay, 50
Gulf War. See Gulf War
herbicides, 187–8
hostages, 227
individuals, targeting of, in WWII, 95
interstate roads, 89
landmines, 69
military objectives, 87
obedience to national law defence, 250
and Protocol I, 11, 47, 255
use of enemy uniforms, 205
Vincennes incident, 110
White House, 98
universal jurisdiction, 236
unlawful combatants
deception, 29, 37, 39, 203
deprived of prisoners of war status, 29--33, 235
detention without trial, 30–1
distinguished from war criminals, 31, 233–7
Geneva Conditions, 34–7, 39–44
Hague Conditions, 33–4, 37–9, 41–4
‘human shields’, 130
Israeli legislation, 31–2
judicial guarantees, 32–3
jurisdiction, 236
meaning, 29–3
mercenaries, 40, 50–2
military tribunals, 30
minimum standards, 32–3
non-uniformed snipers, 95
prosecution, 30–1, 234, 236–7
spies, 211
suicide bombers, 33
torpedoes, 71
unnecessary suffering principle, 56--62, 65--6, 73, 80, 231, 255
Ur temple, 158
urban areas, 100, 125, 129--30, 218
vehicles
anti-vehicle landmines, 65, 67, 69
marking vehicles, 38
medical vehicles, 167–8
veterinary personnel, 147–8
Vietnam War, 105, 187
Vincennes incident, 110
visit and search, 103, 216–17
voluntary societies, 146
waiver of immunity, 253
wanton destruction, 192–3, 218–19
war correspondents, 34, 35, 149
war crimes
attacks on medical units, 166, 232
attacks on undefended localities, 99, 231
and breach of LOIAC, 229
command responsibility, 237–43
cultural and religious property, 163, 231
defences. See defences
definition, 228–33
degrading treatment, 232
deportations, 231
destruction of enemy property, 193, 219, 230–1
direct attack on civilians, 115–16, 129, 230
expanding bullets, 64, 231
enlisting of children, 142, 232
environmental damage, 185–6, 231
excessive collateral damage, 120, 231
generally, 228–54
hostages, 227, 230
humanitarian assistance, 230–1
‘human shields’, 130–1, 232
improper use of flags, emblems and uniforms, 208, 212, 230–1
killing surrendering combatants, 145, 231
mitigation of punishment, 237, 253–4
non-prescription, 234–5
no-quarter policy, 145, 231, 233–4
pillage, 214, 231
poison, 63, 231
poisonous gases, 75, 231
prisoners of war, 230
rape, 142, 232
starvation of civilians, 136, 232
torture, 230
transfers of population, 231–3
treacherous killing, 208, 231
or unlawful combatancy, 31
undefended localities, 99–100, 231
and unnecessary suffering, 60–1, 231
war criminals
characteristics, 233–7
civilians, 233
distinguished from unlawful combatants, 39, 233–7
due process, 236
jurisdiction, 234, 236
post-conviction prisoner of war status, 235–6
prosecution, 234–5, 237
rights, 235–6
sentences, 236
war effort, contribution to, 28, 152, 174, 256
war trophies, 215
war-gaming facilities, 88
warnings, 127–8, 149, 165–6, 221, 226
warships
booty of war, 215
definition, 102
disguise, 206
exclusion zones, 107
identification, 38
military objectives, 88, 102
naval mines, 69--71
weapons. See also specific weapons
absolute contraband, 217
belligerent reprisals, 224
blinding lasers, 60, 72–3, 256
booby-traps, 65–7
development of new weapons, 80–1, 88
incendiaries, 71–2
landmines, 66–9
light individual weapons, 151, 152
naval mines, 69--71
non-detectable fragments 64–5
non-lethal, 59–60
poison, 63
prohibitions, 61–76, 257
projectiles, 62–4
proportionality, 59
restrictions, 62–3
self-destruct mechanisms, 62
storage places, 88
technological developments, 256
unlawful per se, 55
weapons of mass destruction
biological weapons, 55, 57, 76
chemical weapons, 73–6, 187–8
generally, 1, 73–6
nuclear weapons. See nuclear weapons
weather changes, 178, 181, 194
white flags, 108, 145, 199–200, 202
wire tapping, 208
women, 141–3, 150
works of art, 65, 157, 160–3, 224
World War I
blockade of Germany, 137
exclusion zones, 106
Lusitania, 123
peace treaties, 72, 74
poisonous gases, 73
World War II
aerial bombings, 111, 116, 173, 222
Battle of the Bulge, 205
civilian spies, 211
and distinction principle, 115
exclusion zones, 106
flame-throwers, 72
German V1s and V2s, 118
hostages, 227
individuals, targetings of, 95
kamikaze pilots, 33
Monte Cassino bombing, 90
morale shattering, 116
resistance movements, 41, 47
‘scorched earth’ policies, 133
wounded and sick
belligerent reprisals against, 223
booby-traps against, 65
cessation of protection, 150
deception, 200, 202–3
definition, 143
hors de combat, 28
naval warfare, 143
pillage, 214
protection, 45, 143–4, 167, 169
renunciation of rights, 20
shelters, 101
sieges, 134
yachts, 216
Yugoslavia, 15
zero-casualty warfare, 1, 118–19