The Scientific Investigation of Mass
Graves: Towards Protocols and
Standard Operating Procedures

This book describes the detailed processes and techniques essential for the scientific investigation of atrocity crimes. It includes methods for the location, evaluation, excavation, recovery, and recording of mass graves and the analysis of human remains and other evidence in order to establish the identity of victims and the cause and manner of their deaths. This volume establishes protocols and standard operating procedures to guide standards and approaches that can be used in both judicial and humanitarian contexts. The procedures for field and mortuary application are flexible and can be used to meet specific project aims, constraints, and contexts.

   The phases of activity and detailed methodological approaches set out in this book describe components of a complex scientific process. Chapters examine the evaluation of possible sites, scene of crime management, health and safety, key roles, excavation of graves, forensic sciences, mortuary management, analysis of human remains, and antemortem data collection. Recommended recording forms are included on the accompanying CD.

Professor Margaret Cox is visiting professor at the University of Southampton and chief executive of the Inforce Foundation. Her forensic work has taken her to France, Belgium, Kosovo, Rwanda, Iraq, and Cyprus, and she regularly undertakes domestic casework in the United Kingdom. She is the author of numerous peer-reviewed publications and several books, including Forensic Archaeology: Advances in Theory and Practice (coauthored with Professor John Hunter) and Health and Disease in Britain: Prehistory to the Present (coauthored with Professor Charlotte Roberts).

Ambika Flavel is a forensic osteoarchaeologist with the Inforce Foundation. She has worked for many different international organisations and been involved in numerous international mass grave investigations in such places as the Former Yugoslavia, Guatemala, and Iraq. She has also contributed to training and capacity building programmes and in teaching field and laboratory techniques to university students, professionals, and law enforcement agencies.

Ian Hanson is a lecturer in forensic archaeology at Bournemouth University, UK. His experience in working on mass grave investigations and exhumations has taken him to Bosnia, Croatia, Guatemala, the DR Congo, the United Kingdom, the United States, Cyprus, Egypt, and the Sudan. He has worked as a professional archaeologist in Europe, Africa, the United States, and the Middle East and has served as a consultant to various agencies such as the ICTY, UN, FAFG, Kenyon International, and the police.

Joanna Laver is a crime scene investigator for Dorset Police, UK. She has worked as a professional archaeologist in the UK, South America, and Cyprus. Her experience as a forensic osteoarchaeologist has taken her to such places as Kosovo, Cyprus, and Iraq, and she has contributed to domestic cases in the UK. She has been involved in training and capacity building programmes, teaching field and laboratory techniques to students and professionals.

Roland Wessling is forensic science and operations manager for the Inforce Foundation. He has worked as a consultant for numerous organisations on atrocity crime investigations and exhumations in the Balkans, Cyprus, and Iraq and on domestic cases in Germany and Britain. He regularly contributes to capacity building and training programmes for students and professionals.

The Scientific
Investigation of Mass
Graves: Towards
Protocols and
Standard Operating
Procedures

Margaret Cox
Inforce Foundation

Ambika Flavel
Inforce Foundation

Ian Hanson
Bournemouth University

Joanna Laver
Dorset Police Service

Roland Wessling
Inforce Foundation

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Cambridge University Press
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www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521865876

© Alison Anderson, Caroline Barker, Tony Brown, Paul Cheetham, Derek Clark, Margaret Cox, Sarah Donnelly,
Ambika Flavel, Martin Hall, Ian Hanson, Tim Haynie, Michael Hedley, Peter Jones, Joanna Laver, Mary Lewis,
Louise Loe, Tim Loveless, Romina Manning, Jacqueline McKinley, David Oxlee, Alison Perman, Margaret
Samuels, David Schofield, Hendrik Scholtz, Jeanine Vellema, Mark Viner, Roland Wessling, Richard Wright, and
the Inforce Foundation 2008

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2008

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

The scientific investigation of mass graves : towards protocols and standard operating procedures /
Margaret Cox …[et al.].
   p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-521-86587-6 hardback
1. Forensic sciences – Standards. 2. Autopsy – Standards. 3. Criminal investigation.
4. Crime scene searches. 5. Mass burials. 6. War crimes.
I. Cox, Margaret, 1950–
[DNLM: 1. Forensic Anthropology – standards. 2. Autopsy – standards. 3. Exhumation – standards.
4. Homicide. 5. War Crimes. W 750S4165 2008]
RA1053.S33  2008
614′.1 – dc22      2007013561

ISBN 978-0-521-86587-6 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for
the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or
third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such
Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

This book is dedicated to all those who have pioneered the
application and development of the forensic sciences and crime
scene processes to mass grave investigations since the 1940s.

Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Acknowledgments

While aspects of the process and procedure described in this book originated with the experience of some of the authors and editors while working with ICTY’s forensic teams in the Balkans, and elsewhere, the idea and impetus for this book developed from the Inforce Foundation’s Protocols (Version 4) (Inforce, 2004a) and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) (Inforce, 2004b). This book is adapted and much expanded from those documents. The Inforce protocols and SOPs were developed to guide the forensic investigation of mass graves and the analysis of human remains and other evidence from mass graves. These documents were a product of the expertise and contributions freely given by many people from around the world, many of whom are or have been Inforce Scientific Advisors. They have been vitally important in our collective endeavour to improve the manner and effectiveness of the use of the forensic sciences in the investigation of atrocity crimes and mass fatality incidents.

   The guidance presented in this book is adapted and expanded from these contributions, which have been drawn together, heavily contextualised, added to, and edited into a cohesive format by the editorial team under the leadership of Professor Margaret Cox. This book is the cumulative effort of many individuals to whom we are extremely grateful. The list begins with the many attendees who took the time to comment on the initial and relatively short draft protocol documents circulated at the 2002 Inforce Conference and Workshop, and on the more detailed versions that were circulated later. The early contribution of these experts is acknowledged. While they are too numerous to name individually, we would particularly like to thank Jon Sterenberg (ICMP, Bosnia). We are particularly grateful to the following contributors to the Inforce Protocols. Michael Hedley and Dr Andrew Tyrell (JPAC, US) acted as key contributors and coordinators to their areas of specific expertise in preparing the protocols. Each contributed much expertise and time. Andy Tyrell is also thanked for commenting extensively on earlier versions of Chapters 7 and 8 of this book. Also deserving a special mention are Alison Anderson, Paul Cheetham, Tim Loveless, Romina Manning, Steve Naidoo, David Oxlee, Alison Perman, Amanda Reddick, Professor Guy Rutty, Mark Viner, and Professor Richard Wright. We are grateful to Dr Thomas Holland for his permission to base part of the anthropology protocol and SOPs on the CILHI Laboratory SOP of circa 2002/2003.

   The development of the Inforce SOPs has involved considerably more work than the protocols because this is a significantly more comprehensive document. We are particularly grateful to the following individuals, who have contributed to the development of the SOPs and so to this book: Alison Anderson, Professor Caroline Barker, Tony Brown, Paul Cheetham, Dr Derek Clark, Sarah Donnelly, Dr Martin Hall, Major Tim Haynie, Michael Hedley, Dr Peter Jones, Dr Mary Lewis, Dr Louise Loe, Romina Manning, Jackie McKinley, David Oxlee, Alison Perman, Margaret Samuels, David Schofield, Dr Hendrik Scholtz, Dr Andrew Tyrell, Dr Jeanine Vellema, Mark Viner, and Professor Richard Wright. Tim Loveless is thanked for both his editorial pen and his photographic expertise.

   That all of the individuals and organisations mentioned here have contributed to the development of the Inforce Protocols and SOPs should not be taken to infer that they necessarily endorse all aspects of those documents or this book. Ultimate responsibility for the content of this book lies with its authors and editors.

   We gratefully acknowledge the support of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Bournemouth University in funding some of the development of the Inforce Foundation Protocols and SOPs, and of Bournemouth University and the Inforce Foundation for financial support while preparing this book.

   All royalties resulting from the sale of this publication will go to the Inforce Foundation (registered UK charity no. 1097435).

List of Contributors