Cambridge University Press
9780521852654 - Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds - by Anne F. Broadbridge
Index
Abaji (Ilkhanid envoy) 122, 123
Abaqa (Ilkhanid ruler) 32–37, 44
canvassing of Christian aid 32
death 39
divine support 33, 34
and Golden Horde 59
military activities 38–39, 60, 61
see also under ambassadors; letter(s); oral message(s)
Abu Bakr, al-Mansur (Qalawunid sultan) 145
Abu Numayyad Sharifs 97–98, 102
Abu Saʾid (Ilkhanid ruler) 4–5, 9, 99–100, 101
(acceptance of) place in Muslim hierarchy 103, 105, 110–111, 125–128
assumption of personal rule 117
complicity in murder 129–131
death (and aftermath) 138, 139, 151, 178
dynastic consciousness 100–101
ideology 99–100
as patron of religion 100, 102–103
and the pilgrimage 106, 128
poetry 128
response to death of Temürtash 123–124
see also ambassadors; letters; marriage alliances; Muhammad, al-Nasir; titles
Ahmad, al-Mansur (Artuqid ruler) 152, 164
Ahmad, al-Nasir (Qalawunid sultan) 154
Ahmad, al-Salih (Artuqid ruler) 186
Ahmad b. Taymiyah 66, 86, 115
Akhijuq 162
al-Hakim bi-amr Allah (Abbasid caliph) 42, 47–48, 52–53, 55, 56, 62–63, 68, 84
and futuwah 54
sermons 47–48
suppression 42
ʿAlaʾ al-Din (Qaramanid ruler) 154
ʿAli, al-Salih (Qalawunid heir) 39, 44
ʿAli (caliph) 76–77, 80
ʿAli b. Berke Khan 89
ʿAli b. Fadlallah, ʿAlaʾ al-Din 148
ʿAli Padshah (Ilkhanid governor) 139–141
ʿAli Shah (Ilkhanid vizier) 102
ambassadors/envoys see also letter(s)
arrogant behavior 107–109
formal audience 24
humiliation 37, 90, 195
immunity 25, 89
imprisonment 88, 89
lodging 23–24, 108
murder/execution 25, 30, 34, 180, 182, 190
provisioning 21
punishment(s) 24, 198–199
purification 36
reception 20–24, 43, 44, 87, 107–109, 123–124, 182
Anatolian
Sülemish to Mamluks 70, 72
to Baybars 37
to Khalil 46
to Lajin 70
to Muhammad 72, 144
Artuqid 151
Ahmad to Barquq 186
Isa to Barquq 153, 172, 173, 176, 187
Isa to Faraj 193
Isa to Temür 179
Salih to Qalawunids 4, 151, 152
Byzantine
Andronicus II to Ghazan 87
Chobanid 160
Choban to Muhammad 114, 117, 121
Hasan to Ismaʿil 159
Malik Ashraf to Hasan and Salih 160
Golden Horde
Berke to Baybars 54, 55–56
Janibek to Hasan 161–162
Möngke Temür to Baybars 59, 60–61
Noqai to Baybars 59–60
Özbek to Muhammad 131–132, 134, 137
Töde Möngke to Qalawun 62
Toqta to Ghazan 87
Toqta to Muhammad 131
Toqtamish to Barquq 172, 177, 186
Ilkhanid 21, 111, 129
Abaqa to Baybars 32–37
Abaqa to European monarchs 32
Arghun to European monarchs 44
Abu Saʿid to Muhammad 104–110, 111–113, 121–122, 124, 128–129
Choban to Muhammad 114–115, 117
Geikhatu to Khalil 48–49
Ghazan to Boniface VIII 85
Ghazan to governor of Aleppo 93
Ghazan to European monarchs 87
Ghazan to Muhammad 73, 81, 87, 90
Hülegü to Byzantines 54–55
Hülegü to Qutuz 28–30
Musa to Muhammad 140
Öljeitü to European monarchs 95
Öljeitü to Muhammad 95
Sülemish to Lajin/Muhammad 70, 72
Tegüder to Qalawun 39–40, 43
Temürtash to Muhammad 117–118
Jalayirid 141
Shaykh Hasan to Muhammad 141, 142, 144
Shaykh Uvays to Mamluks 163, 164
Sultan-Ahmad to Barquq 172, 176, 186
Sultan-Ahmad to Faraj 188, 197
Sultan-Ahmad to Mamluks 167
Sultan-Husayn to Mamluks 167
Mamluk
Barquq to Beyazid 175
Barquq to Temür 182, 183
Baybars to Abaqa 34, 37
Baybars to Berke 52, 53–55, 56
Baybars to Noqai 56
Faraj to Beyazid 192
Faraj to Temür 192, 195, 196
Hasan to Janibek 162
Hasan to John Cantacuzenus 147
Lajin to Sülemish 70
Muhammad to Abu Saʿid 111–113, 123–124
Muhammad to Eretna 143–144
Muhammad to Ghazan 85, 87–90, 108
Muhammad to Musa 140–141
Muhammad to Özbek 132–133, 134–135, 136, 137
Muhammad to Sülemish 70–71
Qalawun to Tegüder 40–42
to Qara Qoyonlu 152
Shaʿban to Mahmud 147, 152–153
Shaʿban to Mehmed Bulaq 147
to Shaykh Hasan 160
Nuʿayr to Barquq 177
Ögedeid
Qaidu to Mamluks 62
Ottoman
Beyazid to Barquq 175, 186
Beyazid to Faraj 189, 192–193
Murat to Barquq 172–173
Papal
Boniface VIII to/from Ghazan 85
Clement V to/from Öljeitü 95, 96
Qadi Burhan al-Din to Barquq 174
Temürid
to Barquq 171, 177–178, 182, 184, 187
to Beyazid 179–180, 181, 188, 194
to Faraj 193, 195–197
to ʿIsa 176, 179
to Nuʿayr 176
to Qadi Burhan al-Din 174, 178
to Sultan-Ahmad 176
Anatolia 41–42, 46, 72, 117–118, 143–144, 153–156
Baybars’s battle for 37–38
cession to Temür 196
Mamluk problems in 154–156
Andronicus II, Byzantine emperor 87
Anushirvan Khan (Ilkhanid puppet) 159
apostasy, apostate 12, 77, 120, 138
Aq Qoyunlu 9, 199
Uzun Hasan 199, 200
Aqqush al-Afram (Mamluk governor) 96
Aqqush al-Masʿudi, Faris al-Din (Mamluk envoy) 56–58
Ardakin (wife of Khalil) 50
Arghun, Sayf al-Din (viceregent under Muhammad) 133
Arghun (Ilkhanid ruler) 44, 47, 65–66
death 44, 46
as Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction 44
see also under ambassadors; letter(s)
Arjuwash (Mamluk commander) 73
Arpa (Mongol prince) 139
Artuqids 151–153
relations with Mamluks 151–153, 163, 172, 173, 176, 186, 187, 193
see also Ahmad, al-Mansur; Ahmad, al-Salih; Dawud, al-Muzaffar; Ghazi, al-Mansur; ʿIsa, al-Zahir; Mahmud, al-Salih; Salih, al-Salih
Asanbugha (Mamluk commander) 189, 190
Assassins 101–102, 109
Atlamish (Temürid captive with Mamluks) 186–187, 191, 192, 193
Aturji (Mamluk envoy) 132–133
Auspicious Conjunction, Lord of 44, 169–170, 199
see also Arghun; Temür
Aybak al-Afram (Mamluk commander) 90–91
see also Ghazan: decree to Aybak
ʿAyn Jalut, battle of 27, 30, 35
Aytamish al-Muhammadi (Mamluk commander and envoy) 107, 109, 118, 121–122, 123–124, 128
Ayyubid(s) 10, 12
Baghdad, destruction of see Hülegü
Baghdad Khatun (daughter of Choban) 123–124, 125
Baiju Noyan (Mongol commander) 70
Baktimur al-Saqi (Mamluk commander) 133
Baktimur al-Silahdar (Mamluk rebel) 70, 73, 78–79, 96
banner(s) 23
black (caliphal) 15, 62–63
black (used by Ghazan) 65–66, 118
Ilkhanid 105
Mamluk, sultanic 46, 103–104, 159
Temürid 193, 195
Barquq, al-Zahir (Mamluk sultan) 5, 150, 168, 181, 184, 190
Circassian identity 183–184
dealings with lesser rulers 172–173, 174–175, 180–181
death 187
divine support 183
dynastic ambitions 170
ideology 170–171, 183
as innovative thinker 171
military activities 183–187
post-mortem humiliation 194, 195–196
Barsbay, al-Ashraf (Mamluk sultan) 198–199, 200
Barsbugha 129–130
Bayandur Khan 199
Baybars al-Jashnakir, al-Muzaffar (Mamluk commander and sultan) 91
Baybars al-Mansuri (historian) 92–93
Baybars, al-Zahir (Mamluk sultan) 10, 13, 30–38, 58
alliance with Berke 58
alliance with Möngke Temür 36, 60–61
ascension to power 31
and caliphate 14–15, 31, 52–53, 150
correspondence 31–32 (see also under letter(s))
dealings with Golden Horde 51–58, 59–60
dealings with Ilkhanids 32–37
death 37–38
divine support 30
dynastic ambitions 31, 38
and futuwah 54
ideology 38, 62–63
military achievements 37–38
as model for Khalil 45–46, 48–49
as model for Qalawun 38
ostentation 61
as patron of neighboring rulers 31–32
pilgrimage 35
son of see Muhammad Berke Khan
Baysaq (Mamluk commander) 192
Beduin people 103–104, 176–177
Béla IV of Hungary 29
Berke (Golden Horde khan) 10, 21, 27–28, 51–58
and futuwah 54
see also ambassadors; Baybars: alliance with; conversion(s); Hülegü; letter(s)
Beyazid I (Ottoman ruler) 150, 175, 179–180, 185–186, 187, 189, 192–193
see also ambassadors: Ottoman; letter: Ottoman
Beyazid II (Ottoman ruler) 199
Birdibek (Golden Horde khan) 162
blood, (taboo on) shedding of 25, 30, 123
see also execution
Bolad Agha (Mongol notable) 66
Boniface VIII (Pope), letters to/from Ghazan 85
Börte (wife of Chingiz Khan) 7
Broadbridge, Anne F. 58
caliph/caliphate (Abbasid)
allegiance to 42, 45, 84, 183, 199
appearance on coins 88
black, as official color 15
decline/suppression of role 42, 171
house arrest 15, 62–63
legitimacy 68–70
legitimating role 15, 62–63
political role 150
as rallying point 56
role in Islamic ideology 14–15, 99–100, 149–150
see also banner(s); coins; titles of caliphs
candles, provision for holy cities 164
carrier pigeons 77
Centennial Renewer (Mujaddid) 199
see also Ghazan; Muhammad, al-Nasir
Chagatai (son of Chingiz Khan) 7
Chagataid(s), Temür as Reviver of 9, 169, 179
chancellery
Ilkhanid 20
Jalayirid 157
Mamluk 82, 148, 191
chancellery/ies
role in letter production 17, 20
Chingiz Khan 1, 6–7, 13, 67
death 7–8
descendants 179
dynasty 7–8
law, decrees of (yasa) 35, 53–54, 62
royal authority founded on 8, 79
senior wife see Börte
Chingizid dynasty/traditions
(alleged) protection 9–10
coronation rituals 146
importance to later rulers 66–67, 74, 130, 156–157, 161, 168–170
(projected) marriage alliances 106–107, 109, 133–134
see also ideology(ies): Chingizid-Mongol
Choban (Ilkhanid viceregent) 4, 99, 101, 108, 109–110, 114–117, 118, 156
buildings/architecture (in Hijaz) 115–116, 125
burial 125
death 117, 121, 123
dynastic consciousness 100–101
as patron of religion 100, 114–115, 116
Chobanid dynasty 11, 156, 157–162
ideology 159–160
relations with Mamluks 160–162
see also Hasan b. Temürtash; Malik Ashraf
Circassian race/identity see Barquq
Clement IV, Pope 32
Clement V, Pope 95–96
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
clothing, ceremonial significance 54
see also robe(s)
coins
Golden Horde 62
Ilkhanid 64–65, 66
indicating submission 88
rebel/seditious 118
Jalayirid 157, 164
Mamluk 52, 144, 171
Abbasid presence/absence 149–150
indicating submission 195
conversion(s) (to Islam) 52
(allegedly) false 83 (see also Ghazan: conversion: Mamluk responses to)
precedence in 40, see also Islam: seniority within
Golden Horde
Berke 53
Noqai 59–60
Özbek 99
Töde Möngke 62
Ilkhanids 4, 64, 66
Ghazan 64, 65, 66, 75, 77
Öljeitü 94
Tegüder 39, 40
see also Islam: seniority within; names of converts especially Ghazan, Tegüder
curtains, provision for holy places 102–103, 200
Damascus, occupations/battles for 73, 74–80, 191–192
see also Ghazan: military campaigns; Temür: military campaigns: third
Dawlat Khan (Ilkhanid ambassador) 35–36
Dawlat Khwaja 186
Dawud, al-Muzaffar (Artuqid ruler) 153
defection(s) 70–72, 89
attempts to induce 80
Dilshad Khatun (wife of Abu Saʾid) 138, 156
Dimashq Khwaja (son of Choban) 110, 115, 123
diplomacy 16–26
analysis 16
ideological models expressed through 26
see also ambassadors; letter(s); oral message(s); protocol
dissidents see defection(s)
divine favor/support
Turkic 9
see also Abaqa; Barquq; Baybars; Ghazan; Hülegü; Lajin; Muhammad, al-Nasir; Temür
divine mandate 6, 7, 13, 17, 27, 34, 157, 169
Dogerids 149, 151, 153, 186
Dulqadirids 149, 155
see also Qaraja
dynasty (concept) see lineage
Edward I of England 32, 87, 95–96
Edward II of England 96
Elbistan, battle of 37
elephant(s) 128, 195
Enduring Sky, cult of 1, 6–7, 66, 94
envoys see ambassadors
Eretna 143–144, 148, 153, 154–155
see also ambassadors: Anatolian
execution, methods of 24, 25, 123, 190
see also ambassadors
Faraj, al-Nasir (Mamluk sultan) 5, 168
accession 187–188
dealings with Temür 191, 193–197
(lack of) ideology 188
Fedor Rostislavovich, Grand Duke 134
futuwah 49, 54
see also al-Hakim; Baybars; Berke; Khalil; al-Mustansir
Geikhatu 45–46
military activities 48–49
relation with Mamluks see Khalil
see also under ambassadors
Genghis Khan see Chingiz Khan
Ghazan 13, 20
(alleged) hypocrisy see conversion below; see also under hypocrite(s)
behavior of soldiers under 76
see also banner(s)
buildings, tomb 64–65
as Centennial Renewer 10–11, 65–66, 77, 113
see also Centennial Renewer
conversion 64, 66, 75, 77
Mamluk responses to 78, 80, 83, 84, 86
see also conversion
dealings with Damascenes 74–76
dealings with Mamluks 70–93, 189
see also under Muhammad, al-Nasir
death 94
decree to Aybak 90–93
diplomatic activity 87
divine favor 76, 79, 81, 82, 84
historical awareness 80
ideology 74–80, 91–92
impact of arguments 92–93
marriage 67
military campaigns 65–66, 72–73
first 73–80
second 80, 82, 83–84
third 87, 90–93
see also Damascus; Syria
pictorial representations 70
pilgrimage 78
(proposed) alliances 85
reforms 64
religious outlook 67–70
self-characterization 92
see also ambassadors; banner(s); Boniface VIII; Guardianship; letter(s)
Ghazi, al-Mansur (Artuqid ruler) 83
al-Ghutamī (Mamluk Commander) 93
gift(s) 22–23
Golden Horde 132
Ilkhanid 79, 105–106, 111
Mamluk 54, 56, 61, 181
symbolism 33
of weaponry 36–37, 88, 182, 184
withheld 23
Gleb Vasilʾkovich, Prince 134
golden dynasty/family see Chingizid dynasty
Golden Horde 2, 27–28
military alliance with Mamluks 136
relations with Mamluks 4, 23, 36, 50–63, 131–137
see also names of khans; conversion(s)
governors
Ilkhanid, criticized for oppression 41–42
Mamluk
over Syria 77–79
for Temür 192
Turkic, Mongol for Mamluks 148–150
financial contributions 149
visits to court 149
Guardianship (of Islam)
and holy cities 15–16, 183–184
in Ilkhanid ideology 66, 74, 76
loss of ideological significance 145–146
in Mamluk ideology 45, 46, 64, 70–71, 88, 138–139, 140, 143, 168
in Temürid ideology 170–171
see also ideology
Güyük, Great Khan 8
Hajji-Taghay (Ilkhanid commander) 139, 142–143, 144–145
al-Hakkari, ʿAlaʾ al-Din, 49
Hasan, al-Nasir (Qalawunid sultan) 147, 151–152, 160, 163
Hasan b. Temürtash (Chobanid ruler) 157, 159
Henry II of Cyprus 73
heresy see apostasy
Hetʾum I of Armenia 13, 33
Hetʾum II of Armenia 48, 76–77
hierarchy/ies see conversion; Islam: seniority
Hodgson, Marshall 8–9
holy cities
responsibility for 40, 87, 97–98, 100, 146 (see also Guardianship; Jerusalem; Mecca; Medina)
expenditure on 116
rivalry over 102–104, 115–117, 125, 164–167
homosexuality 89
Homs, battle of 27, 39
Hromgla, capture of 48
Hulawun see Hülegü
Hülegü 8, 10, 27–28, 51
and Baybars 31–32
and Byzantines 54–55
and caliph(ate) 9, 14–15
and Civil War/Berke [Golden Horde] 51, 53–54, 55–56
death 32
disdain for slaves see slaves: Ilkhanid attacks on
divine support 29
military activities 52
pictorial representations 70
and Qutuz 28–30
sack of Baghdad 27–28, 47, 52–53
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
hypocrite(s)/hypocrisy, accusations of see conversion(s); Ghazan; Muhammad, al-Nasir: (reputation for) lies/duplicity; Temür: (alleged) lies/hypocrisy
Ibn ʿAbd al-Zahir (Mamluk historian) 42
Ibn al-Sukkari, ʿImad al-Din (Mamluk envoy) 87–90, 95
Ibn ʿArabshah 20
Ibn Tiqtaqah 69
Ibrahim b. Qutlughtimur 150
Ibrahim Shah 144–145
ideology(ies) of rule, of kingship
defined 6
development 4–5
divergence from 6
models
Chingizid-Mongol 1, 6–9, 34, 79, 200
of Guardianship 14, 15–16
Islamic 2–3, 10–11, 35, 51, 64, 71, 74, 77–78, 91, 161–162, 170, 199
Islamic and Chingizid fusion 2–3, 11, 16, 39–42, 146–147, 162–163, 167, 188
Mamluk 4–5, 12–16, 83, 90, 138–139, 167, 183–184, 188–189, 198, 199–200
new developments 99–100, 110–111, 167
Ottoman 175
post-Temürid 198–200
Qalawunid 146
Temürid 9, 11, 168–170, 178–180, 188
Turkic 148
Turko-Mongol/post-Mongol 9–10, 198–199
mutual intolerance 6
see also Guardianship; names of rulers, names of dynasties
Ilkhanids 2, 27–28
ideology 4–5
internal rivalries 139–145, 146–147
relations with Mamluks 16, 20–21, 28–50, 72–73, 99–101
relations with Qaramanids 153
see also conversion(s); ideology; names of leaders
imperial su (fortune) 7
ink, colors 17, 20, 87–88, 113, 135, 157, 194–195
ʿIsa al-Zahir (Artuqid ruler) 153, 172, 173, 176, 179, 186, 187, 189
Islam
(alleged) betrayal of ideals 77
(calls for) unity 43, 62–63, 140
regional supremacy 4, 98
seniority within 42, 51, 62–63, 64, 83 (see also Muhammad, al-Nasir)
see also conversion(s); Guardianship; holy cities; ideology; names of Muslim rulers
Ismaʾil, al-Salih (Qalawunid sultan) 159
Ismaʾil Safavi, Shah 11, 199
Jalayirids 152, 156–157, 162–167, 179 see also Shaykh Hasan; Shaykh Uvays; Sultan-Ahmad; Sultan-Husayn; Tundi
Mamluk relations with 163–167
see also under ambassadors; letter(s)
James I of Aragon 32
Janibek (Golden Horde khan) 161–162 see also under ambassadors; letter(s)
Jaqmaq, al-Zahir (Mamluk sultan) 200
Jelu Khan (son of Choban) 125
Jerusalem 15, 73, 84, 113, 116, 135
jihad 14, 47, 200
Jochi (son of Chingiz Khan) 7, 27
John VI Cantacuzenus, Byzantine emperor 147
Juban, Sayf al-Din (Mamluk commander) 107
Kamal al-Din b. Yunus of Mosul (Ilkhanid envoy) 81
Kanuni Suleiman ‘the Lawgiver’ (Ottoman sultan) 11
Kay Kawus, ʿIzz al-Din (Seljuk sultan) 31, 54, 55
Kay Khusraw III (Seljuk sultan) 32
Khalil, al-Ashraf (Qalawunid sultan) 44–50, 90
and Anatolians 153–154
and Baybars 45–46, 48–49
buildings/architecture 50
and caliph 45, 150
ceremonies 47–48
death 50, 63, 64
dynastic ambitions 50
and futuwah 49
and Geikhatu 45–46, 48–49
and Golden Horde 63
ideology 45, 47–48, 49–50
military capabilities/achievements 44–45, 46–48
relations with neighboring rulers 49–50
as Reviver of the Abbasid State 45
titles, inscriptions of 45
Khusraw I (Sassanian emperor) 159
Khwaja Marjan (Ilkhanid governor) 163–164
kingship, (un)fitness for 74, 75–76, 81–82
ignorance and 80, 91–92
see also ideology
Kitbugha, al-Mansur (Mamluk sultan) 35, 45, 64
Konchak (Golden Horde princess) 134
Kublai Khan see Qubilai
Kurds 49–50
Kusharbak, Sayf al-Din (Mamluk ambassador) 53, 55
Lajin, al-Mansur (Mamluk sultan) 64, 70–71
Laszlo IV of Hungary 134
legitimacy, importance of 1
letter(s) 16–20
see also ambassadors
in Arabic 19–20
dating 19, 76
forgeries 86
layout 20, 92
in Mongolian 19–20
seals 19, 157
surviving examples 19–20
Anatolian
Sülemish to Mamluks 70, 72
Golden Horde 20
Berke to Baybars 55
Noqai to Baybars 59–60
Özbek to Muhammad 136
Töde Möngke to Qalawun 62
Toqta to Muhammad 131
Ilkhanid
Abaqa to Baybars 34–35
Abaqa to European monarchs 32
Ghazan to Boniface VIII 85
Ghazan to governor of Aleppo 93
Ghazan to Muhammad 80–82
Ghazan to Syrians 74–80
Hülegü to Qutuz/Yusuf 13, 28–30, 181
Öljeitü to Philip IV 95–96
Tegüder to Qalawun 39–42, 43–44
Jalayirid 157, 163
Shaykh Uvays to Mamluks 163
Mamluk 17
Barquq to Temür 179, 182–183, 187, 194
Baybars to Abaqa 34–35
Baybars to Berke 51, 53, 54
Baybars to Möngke Temür 59
Baybars to Noqai 56–58, 60
Faraj to Temür 191–192, 193–195, 196
Hasan to Janibek 162
Hasan to John Cantacuzenus 147
Lajin to Sülemish 70
Muhammad to Abu Sa’id 113–114
Muhammad to Eretna 143–144
Muhammad to Ghazan 82–85, 87–88, 91–92
Muhammad to Musa 140–141
Muhammad to Özbek 132–133, 134–135, 136, 137
Muhammad to Sülemish 70–71
Qalawun to Tegüder 40–44
Qalawunids 147–148
to Qara Qoyunlu 152
Shaʾban to Mahmud 147, 152–153
Shaʿban to Mehmed Bulaq 147
to Shaykh Hasan 160
to Shaykh Uvays 163
Sunqur to Abaqa 38–39
Mongol
to Bela IV 29
Ottoman 175–176
papal
Boniface VIII to/from Ghazan 85
Clement V to/from Öljeitü 95, 96
Qadi Burhan al-Din to Barquq 174
Temürid
to Barquq 171–172, 174, 177–179, 180, 181–182
to Beduins 176–177
to Beyazid 179–180, 181, 188, 194
to Faraj 195–196
to ʿIsa 176, 179
to Mamluk cities 189–190
to Nuʿayr 176
to Qadi Burhan al-Din 174, 178
to Sultan-Ahmad 176
see also ink; paper
Lewon, Prince 33
lightning/thunder(storms) 25
lineage
Ilkhanid-Chingizid 100–101
increasing ideological significance 146, 188
(Mamluk) lack of 12
see also slaves/slavery: Ilkhanid attacks on Mamluk; Temür’s attacks on Mamluk
role in ideology of kingship 12
Lippard, Bruce G. 55
Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction see Auspicious Conjunction, Lord of
Louis IX of France 32
Luʾluʾid dynasty 31
McCormick, Michael 16
Mahdi (‘Rightly Guided One’), Temürtash claimed as 118, 120
Mahmud, al-Salih (Artuqid ruler) 147–148, 152–153
Mahmud al-Halabi (author) 71
Mahmud (Qaramanid ruler) 49
Malik Ashraf (Chobanid ruler) 151, 155, 159–162
Mamluk Sultanate 2–3
alliances 10
ethnic/religious composition 2
internal divisions 145, 150
military blunders 191–192
Mongol criticisms of 77–78, 79–80, 91, 170 (see also slaves)
regional sovereignty 5
relations with Mongols 12–14
relations with neighboring/client states 27, 149–150
relocation of population see under Syria
submission to Temür 193–197
system of succession 78, 79
see also ideology; names of sultans
Mamluk sultan(s)
ethnicity 183–184
ideological role 14–16
as religious senior 188–189
see also Muhammad, al-Nasir; Qalawun
Mardin, Mamluk raid on 72, 81–82, 83–84
Maria, Princess (wife of Abaqa) 32
Marj al-Suffar, battle of 90
marriage alliances (proposed) 4, 134, 181, 196
Muhammad/Abu Saʿid or Chobanids 107, 109–110, 124, 129
Muhammad/later Ilkhanids 142–143
Muhammad/Özbek 132–134, 137
marriage laws 67
Mecca
buildings/restoration schemes 115–117
see also under Choban; Muhammad, al-Nasir
unrest 128
see also holy cities; Islam: seniority within; pilgrimage(s)
Medina 15–16, 115, 125, 128, 129, 175, 184
Mehmed Bulaq (Golden Horde khan) 147–148
Mehmed I (Ottoman sultan) 200
Melville, Charles 114
merchants, treatment of 40, 41
Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine emperor 32, 51, 54–55
Miranshah (son of Temür) 186–187
rebellion 187–188
Misr Khwaja (Qara Qoyunlu) 172
Möngke, Great Khan 8, 27, 28
Möngke Temür (brother of Abaqa) 39
Möngke Temür (Golden Horde khan)
death 62
and Mamluks 36, 59, 60–61
and medicines 61
and Qaidu 62
see also under ambassadors
Mongolian (language) see Mongols: languages
Mongols 1–2
(calls for) unity 40, 78
civil war 1, 28
conversion to Islam 10
impact on non-Mongol world 8–10, 27
languages 19–20
Mamluks who were 13
religious beliefs 25
treatises on 8–9
Muhammad, al-Nasir (Qalawunid sultan) 4–5, 63, 179, 180
accession/early reign 64, 72, 82
as (Centennial) Renewer of Religion 113
attempted assassination 130
buildings/architecture 23
in holy cities 113, 125, 129, 164
circumcision 50
complicity in murder 129–130 (see also Abu Saʿid; Temürtash)
daughters (and marriage) 109–110 (see also marriage alliances)
dealings with ambassadors 23, 106–107, 109
death 145
dynastic position 101, 111–113
fitness to rule 74, 75
and Ghazan 80–85
and the Ilkhanid successors 139–145
Ilkhanid views of 81–82, 91–92, 99, 130–131, 189
and Öljeitü 96–98
personality 99, 100, 130–131
and the pilgrimage 100, 102–104, 116, 128, 129
relations with Abu Saʿid 101–114, 117, 125–128
relations with Choban 114–115, 116–117, 124–125
relations with Golden Horde 131–137
relations with regional leaders 118, 143, 153–155
religious/political supremacy 100, 110–111, 129, 131, 135, 138–139, 144
(reputation for) lies/duplicity 109–110, 117, 122, 123–124, 130–131, 136–137, 138–139
and Temürtash 117–122, 159
wives see Tughay; Tulunbay
see also ambassadors; coins; Guardianship; holy cities; letter(s); marriage alliances; titles
Muhammad b. Yolqutluq (Ilkhanid ruler) 139, 141–142
Muhammad Beg (Ilkhanid commander) 141
Muhammad Berke Khan (Baybars’s son) 31
circumcision 56
wedding 61
Muhammad II (Khwarazm-Shah) 29
Muhammad (the Prophet) 51, 77
descendants 67–68, 74, 111
Mujaddid see Centennial Renewer; Ghazan; Muhammad, al-Nasir
Mukhlis al-Din (Anatolian ambassador) 70
Murad I (Ottoman sultan) 172–173
Musa Khan (Ilkhanid successor) 139, 140–142, 144
Musa (nephew of Khalil), circumcision 50
Muslims see Islam
al-Mustansir (Abbasid caliph) 53
and futuwah 54
inauguration 31, 52
al-Mustaʾsim (Abbasid caliph) 181
execution 9, 69
al-Mutawakkil ʿala Allah (Abbasid caliph) 150
Nasir al-Din ʿAli Khwaja (Ilkhanid ambassador) 81
Noqai (Golden Horde) 55, 56–58, 59–60, 62, 78
see also ambassadors; conversion(s); letter(s)
Nuʿayr (Beduin leader) 176–177, 184, 185
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
Ögedei (Great Khan) 7
Ögedeid(s) 169, 178
Öljeitü (Ilkhanid ruler) 94–96, 105
buildings/tomb 65, 67
diplomacy 96
pictorial representations 95
religious outlook 66, 67–68, 94–95, 101
see also under ambassadors; conversion(s); letter(s); Muhammad, al-Nasir
oral message(s) 16–17
Abaqa to Baybars 33–34
Baybars to Abaqa 36
Tegüder to Qalawun 41
Osman (Ottoman ruler) 11
Ottomans see ambassadors; letter(s); names of leaders
Özbek (Golden Horde khan) 99
and Muhammad 4, 131–137
titles 135
see also ambassadors; conversion(s); letter(s); marriage alliances; Shaykh Nuʿman; Tulunbay
palanquin, ceremonial significances 102–104
paper, size/quality of 17–19, 54, 113, 135, 139, 140, 141, 143–144, 149, 162, 163, 175, 185, 192
parasol, ceremonial significance 43, 108
Parvanah, the, Muʿin al-Din 32, 36, 37–38
peace
agreement of 1323/723 99–100, 109–110, 131, 151
background 101–104
negotiations 104–110
guarantee of 75–77
Mongol, in 1304/704 78, 94
as submission 194
negotiations 194–196
Philip IV of France 95–96
pilgrimage(s) 62, 100
ceremonies 200
see also Abu Saʿid; Baybars; Ghazan; Guardianship: and holy cities; Muhammad, al-Nasir; Shaʿban
Pir Husayn 144–145
Pir Muhammad b. Umar Shaykh (Temürid prince) 199
propaganda, Mamluk 86, 90–93
protocol, diplomatic
(alleged) ignorance of 74, 81–82, 84–85, 91–92
in dealings with ambassadors 20–26
and letter production 17
Mongol/Turkic 24–25
psychological warfare see warfare, psychological
Qadi Burhan al-Din (ruler of Sivas) 174–175, 178, 185–186, 187
Qaidu (Ögedeid khan) 60, 61–62, 78
Qalawun, al-Mansur (Mamluk sultan) 12, 61–63, 90
ancestry 75
banners 63
and Baybars 38
buildings/architecture 40
and caliph 42, 150
death 44, 46
dynastic ambitions 38–39
and Golden Horde 61–63
ideology 41–42, 61, 64, 83, 100
and Khalil 44–45
as model for Muhammad 113
and Tegüder 39–44, 82
as warrior for the faith 47
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
Qara Muhammad (Qara Qoyunlu leader) 172–173
Qara Qoyunlu 152, 199
see also Misr Khwaja; Qara Muhammad; Qara Yusuf
Qara Yusuf (Qara Qoyunlu leader) 173, 177, 184, 186–187, 188–189, 193, 196–197
Qaraja (Dulqadirid governor for the Mamluks) 155
Qaramanid(s) 153–154
Qarasunqur (Mamluk rebel) 96, 101–102, 105, 110, 121, 122, 124
Qaytbay, al-Ashraf (Mamluk sultan) 199
Qilich Arslan IV (Seljuk sultan) 31, 32
Qipchaq (Mamluk governor and rebel) 70, 73, 78–79, 96
Qipchaq(s) 13, 29, 34
Qonqqurtai, (Ilkhanid governor) 41–42
Qubilai (Great Khan) 8, 35, 64
Quran, presentation copies 105, 166
Qurt b. Umar 150
Qutlughshah 90
Qutuz, al-Muzaffar (Mamluk sultan) 34, 180
death 30, 31
and Hülegü 13, 28–30, 181, 182
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
Ramadanids 149, 153
Rashid al-Din (Ilkhanid vizier) 64, 66, 68–69
refugees, treatment of 52
Renewer of Religion see Centennial Renewer; Ghazan; Muhammad, al-Nasir
Rightly Guided One see Mahdi
robe(s) of honor
for ambassadors 22–23
for vassals 176, 195
withheld 23, 134
Saʿd al-Dawlah (Ilkhanid vizier) 44
Salih, al-Salih (Artuqid ruler) 151–152, 160, 163
Salim (Dogerid leader) 186
al-Sallami, Majd al-Din Ismaʿil 104–106, 109, 110
Samaghar (Ilkhanid governor) 35–36
Sanjar (Seljuk sultan) 65
Sassanian dynasty 157–159
Sati Beg (sister of Abu Saʿid) 138, 139
Seljuks 10, 37–38, 148
seniority see Islam
Shaʿban, al-Ashraf (Qalawunid sultan) 147, 152–153, 184
ancestry 147
death 150, 167
pilgrimage 167
relations with Jalayirids 164–167
see also ambassadors; letter(s); tughrah
Shah Rukh (son of Temür) 198–199, 200
Shahinshah (Chobanid envoy) 121
Shahnamah, Great Mongol 70
shamanistic practices 24, 66–67
Shaykh ʿAbd al-Rahman (Ilkhanid envoy) 42–44
Shaykh al-Muhammadi see Shaykh, al-Muʾayyad (Mamluk sultan) 197
Shaykh Edebali 11
Shaykh Hasan Jalayir 139, 141–143, 144–145, 156–157, 160
descendants see Jalayirids
Shaykh Ibrahim (Ilkhanid envoy) 128–129
Shaykh Nuʿman (Golden Horde envoy) 133, 135, 137
Shaykh Saweh (Temürid envoy) 177, 182
Shaykh Uvays (Jalayirid ruler) 156, 157, 161, 162–167, 184
Shaykh, al-Muʾayyad (Mamluk sultan) 10, 197, 200
Shiism 67–70, 80, 94
signature, royal see tughrah
slaves/slavery
as gifts 177–178
Ilkhanid attacks on Mamluk 12, 13, 29–30, 75, 101
Mamluk slavery as a problem 12
protocol 178
Temür’s attacks on Mamluk 13, 170, 179–180
snow/ice see water
sources 3–4
Arabic bias 3–4
non-diplomatic 4
problems in 145
spies, capture of 40, 180
steppe traditions 94
submission see vassals
Sudun (Mamluk governor) 190
Sülemish (Ilkhanid rebel) 70–72, 77–78, 80, 144
see also under ambassadors; letter(s)
Sultan-Ahmad (Jalayirid) 150, 167, 172
dealings/conflicts with Temür 176, 185, 188–189, 196–197
reception in Cairo 180
relations with Barquq 180–181, 184, 186
see also under ambassadors; Jalayirids; letter(s)
Sultan-Ahmad (Jalayirid ruler) 21
Sultan-Husayn (Jalayirid) 157, 167
see also under ambassadors; Jalayirids
Sunni Islam 101
Sunqur al-Ashqar (Mamluk commander) 33–34, 37, 38–39, 128
Suyurghatmish Khan (Temürid puppet) 171
Syria
Ilkhanid invasions 96
see also Ghazan: military campaigns
population relocation to Ilkhanate 80
rebellions 154, 155
Temürid invasion see Temür: military campaigns: third
see also letter(s)
taboo see blood; water
Taghay Temür (Ilkhanid ruler) 139
Tankiz (Mamluk governor) 107–109, 119
Tarmashirin (Chagatayid khan) 135
tax revenue, demands/promises of 87, 88, 195
Tayirbugha ([former] Ilkhanid governor) 111
Tegüder Ahmad (Ilkhanid ruler) 39–44
arguments for legitimacy 39–40
conversion 39, 40–41
doubts of genuineness 42–43
death 43–44
demand for submission 39–40
good works 40
and Islamic law 62
and Qalawun 82, 83;
see also under ambassadors; letter(s)
Temüjin see Chingiz Khan
Temür 2, 16, 78
acknowledged as Muslim 194–195
(alleged) lies/hypocrisy 185
children 169
death 3, 197
divine support 169, 190
dynasty 198–199
empire 1, 5
historical importance 3, 198, 200
as Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction 169
Mamluk criticisms of 183, 184–185
military campaigns 29, 168, 170–171
first (three-year in Iran) 171–173
second (five-year in Iran) 174–187
third (seven-year in Iran) 187–197
and peace initiatives 94
relations with Barquq 13, 174–186
relations with Faraj 188
see also ambassadors; Chagataid(s); ideology; letter(s); slaves
Temürbugha al-Marghinani 124
Temürtash (Ilkhanid rebel) 117–122, 125, 136, 156
decapitated head 123–124
followers 120–121
impersonation 159
imprisonment/death 121–123, 130
political ambitions 117–118, 120, 144
relations with Muhammad 118–121
titles
appearance in letters 17, 20
belittling use/withholding 185
Golden Horde
Özbek 135
Ilkhanid 146
Abu Saʿid 113–114
Jalayirid 156, 162–163
Mamluk 45, 52
Khalil 49–50
lesser rulers 139, 141–142, 143–144, 149
Muhammad 113
Shaʿban 166
Temürid 193–194
Turkic/Seljuk 148
Töde Möngke (Golden Horde khan) 62–63
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
Töle Buqa (Golden Horde khan) 63
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
tolerance (religious), expressions of 76–77
Tolui (son of Chingiz Khan) 7, 179
Toqta (Golden Horde khan) 78, 131
see also ambassadors
Toqtamish (Golden Horde khan) 170, 172, 177, 186
see also ambassadors; letter(s)
Tughay (Turkish wife of Muhammad) 104
tughrah (royal signature) 166–167
Tulunbay (Chingizid wife of Muhammad) 107, 132–134, 180
death 137
divorce 136–137
Tundi (Jalayirid wife of Barquq) 181
Tuqsuba (Mamluk envoy) 134–135
Türkmen 149, 150, 153–156
see also Dogerids; Dulqadirids; Qara Qoyunlu; Qaramanid(s); Ramadanids
unity see Islam; Mongols
Uruj, Sayf al-Din (Mamluk envoy) 121
Uzdamir al-Mujiri, Husam al-Din (Mamluk envoy) 87–90, 95, 108
vassals/vassalage 58
demands for 28–30, 33, 34, 78, 81–82, 87, 176
rejection of 41
vice, combating of 104
Wadi al-Khaznadar, battle of 73, 76, 80, 81–82, 84, 89, 90, 91
warfare, psychological 32
water, spiritual significance 24–25, 116
Yasaʾur (Mongol dissident) 129–131
Yuri Danilovich, Prince 134
Yusuf, al-Nasir (Ayyubid sultan) 181, 182
Zoroastrianism 11
Zubaydah, Queen 116
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