Cambridge University Press
052184875X - Electron Microprobe Analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy in Geology - by S. J. B. Reed
Frontmatter/Prelims


ELECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSIS AND
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IN GEOLOGY

This book describes electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) specifically from a geological viewpoint. No prior knowledge is assumed and unnecessary technical detail is avoided, in order to keep the book easily accessible to new users of these techniques.

The principles of electron–specimen interactions and instrumentation are covered in the first part of the book. The mechanisms involved in SEM (secondary and backscattered electron) image formation are then explained, with full consideration of digital imaging techniques. The operating principles of energy- and wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectrometers are described, as well as ancillary techniques including cathodoluminescence (CL) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Procedures for qualitative and quantitative X-ray analysis (using either electron microprobe or SEM instruments) are described in detail. The production of X-ray ‘maps’ showing element distributions is also described, with examples. Finally the subject of specimen preparation is discussed. There is an emphasis throughout on specifically geological aspects not covered in books aimed at a more general readership.

This updated version of the first (1996) edition takes full account of recent developments and is intended for geological graduate students and postdoctoral workers, as well as those in commercial laboratories. It is also an invaluable accompaniment to courses for geological EMPA and SEM users.

DR REED is affiliated to the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Cambridge. After studying physics at Southampton University, he gained a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge in 1964 for research in using EMPA to analyse iron meteorites. He went on to be a Scientific Officer at the Natural History Museum, London from 1965 until 1970 before his appointment as Senior Research Fellow at the Australian National University, Canberra in 1970, where he implemented a new system for quantitative ED analysis. From 1974 until his retirement in 2002, Dr Reed was at the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge with research interests including ion and electron microprobe analysis and developing simulation software. In 1981 he was awarded the Microbeam Analysis Society Presidential Award for his outstanding scientific contribution to the theory and practice of microbeam analysis, followed in 1984 by honorary life membership. He has written, and contributed to, several books on the subject, including Electron Microprobe Analysis (Cambridge University Press, first edn 1975, second edn 1993).





ELECTRON MICROPROBE ANALYSIS
AND SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY IN GEOLOGY

S. J. B. REED

University of Cambridge





CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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© S. J. B. Reed 2005

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Contents

Preface page ix
Acknowledgment xiii
1 Introduction1
1.1 Electron microprobe analysis 1
1.2 Scanning electron microscopy 1
1.2.1 Use of SEM for analysis 2
1.3 Geological applications of SEM and EMPA 2
1.4 Related techniques 4
1.4.1 Analytical electron microscopy 4
1.4.2 Proton-induced X-ray emission 4
1.4.3 X-ray fluorescence analysis 5
1.4.4 Auger analysis 5
1.4.5 Ion microprobe analysis 6
1.4.6 Laser microprobe methods 6
2 Electron–specimen interactions 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Inelastic scattering 7
2.2.1 Electron range 8
2.3 Elastic scattering 8
2.3.1 Backscattering 9
2.4 Secondary-electron emissiontd 11
2.5 X-ray production 11
2.5.1 The continuous X-ray spectrum 12
2.5.2 Characteristic X-ray spectra 12
2.6 X-ray absorption 16
2.7 The Auger effect and fluorescence yield 17
2.8 Cathodoluminescence 17
2.9 Specimen heating 19
3Instrumentation 21
3.1Introduction 21
3.2The electron gun21
3.2.1 High-brightness electron sources 23
3.3 Electron lenses23
3.3.1 Aberrations25
3.3.2 Apertures27
3.4 Beam diameter and current27
3.5 Column alignment27
3.6 Beam current monitoring28
3.7 Beam scanning 29
3.8 The specimen stage30
3.9 The optical microscope 32
3.10 Vacuum systems 33
3.10.1 Contamination 34
3.10.2 Low-vacuum or environmental SEM34
3.11 Electron detectors 35
3.11.1 Secondary-electron detectors 35
3.11.2 Backscattered-electron detectors 36
3.12 Detection of other types of signal37
3.12.1 Auger electrons37
3.12.2 Cathodoluminescence 38
3.12.3 Electron backscatter diffraction 40
4 Scanning electron microscopy41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Magnification and resolution 41
4.3 Focussing42
4.3.1 Working distance42
4.4 Topographic images 43
4.4.1 Secondary-electron images 43
4.4.2 Topographic contrast in BSE images 45
4.4.3 Spatial resolution49
4.4.4 Depth of focus52
4.4.5 Stereoscopic images52
4.4.6 Environmental SEM53
4.5 Compositional images 53
4.5.1 Atomic-number discrimination in BSE images55
4.5.2Spatial resolution in BSE images61
4.5.3The application of etching61
4.6Image defects61
4.6.1Statistical noise61
4.6.2Specimen charging62
4.6.3Stray field and vibration63
4.6.4Astigmatism63
4.6.5Coating artefacts64
4.7Image enhancement64
4.7.1Digital image processing64
4.7.2False colours67
4.8Other types of image68
4.8.1Absorbed-current images68
4.8.2Magnetic-contrast images70
4.8.3Electron backscatter diffraction images70
4.8.4Cathodoluminescence images73
4.8.5Charge-contrast images77
4.8.6Scanning Auger images77
5X-ray spectrometers78
5.1Introduction78
5.2Energy-dispersive spectrometers78
5.2.1Solid-state X-ray detectors78
5.2.2Energy resolution80
5.2.3Detection efficiency81
5.2.4Pulse processing and dead-time82
5.2.5Spectrum display84
5.2.6Artefacts in ED spectra86
5.3Wavelength-dispersive spectrometers88
5.3.1Bragg reflection88
5.3.2Focussing geometry90
5.3.3Design of WD spectrometers92
5.3.4Proportional counters94
5.3.5Pulse counting and dead-time96
5.4Comparison between ED and WD spectrometers97
6Element mapping99
6.1Introduction99
6.2Digital mapping99
6.3EDS mapping100
6.4WDS mapping102
6.5Quantitative mapping102
6.6Statistics and noise in maps104
6.7Colour maps104
6.8Modal analysis105
6.9Line scans109
6.10Three-dimensional maps109
7X-ray analysis (1)110
7.1Introduction110
7.2Pure-element X-ray spectra110
7.3Element identification113
7.4Mineral identification115
7.5Quantitative WD analysis115
7.5.1Background corrections117
7.5.2Overlap corrections117
7.5.3Uncorrected concentrations118
7.6Quantitative ED analysis120
7.6.1Background corrections in ED analysis120
7.6.2Measuring peak intensities in ED analysis121
7.6.3Comparison between ED and WD analysis121
7.7Matrix corrections122
7.7.1Atomic-number corrections122
7.7.2Absorption corrections123
7.7.3Fluorescence corrections124
7.7.4Alpha coefficients126
7.7.5The accuracy of matrix corrections126
7.8Correction programs127
7.8.1Unanalysed elements127
7.9Treatment of results128
7.9.1Polyvalency129
7.9.2Mineral formulae130
7.9.3Data presentation131
7.10Standards131
7.10.1Standardless analysis135
8X-ray analysis (2)136
8.1Light-element analysis136
8.1.1Chemical bonding effects137
8.1.2Absorption corrections for light elements138
8.1.3Application of multilayers138
8.2Low-voltage analysis139
8.3Choice of conditions for quantitative analysis139
8.4Counting statistics140
8.4.1Homogeneity141
8.5Detection limits142
8.6The effect of the conductive coating142
8.7Beam damage143
8.7.1Heating143
8.7.2Migration of alkalies etc.144
8.8Boundary effects146
8.9Special cases146
8.9.1Tilted specimens147
8.9.2Broad-beam analysis147
8.9.3Particles148
8.9.4Rough and porous specimens149
8.9.5Thin specimens149
8.9.6Fluid inclusions150
8.9.7Analysis in low vacuum151
9Sample preparation152
9.1Initial preparation of samples152
9.1.1Cleaning152
9.1.2Drying152
9.1.3Impregnation153
9.1.4Replicas and casts153
9.1.5Cutting rock samples154
9.2Mounting155
9.2.1The SEM ‘stub’155
9.2.2 Embedding155
9.2.3Thin sections156
9.2.4Grain mounts156
9.2.5Standards157
9.3Polishing158
9.4Etching158
9.5Coating159
9.5.1Carbon coating160
9.5.2Metal evaporation161
9.5.3Sputter coating161
9.5.4Removing coatings162
9.6Marking specimens163
9.6.1Specimen ‘maps’163
9.7Specimen handling and storage164
Appendix165
References182
Index190
The colour plates are situated between pages 96 and 97.

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