Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures, tables and boxes.
Abney level 377
abundance
absolute 311
amphibian data 283
bird surveys 174–5, 311, 312
timed species counts 313–14
change monitoring in invertebrates 214–15
electrofishing 256
plants 186–7
relative 188
quadrats 191
random distribution 172
relative 311, 312
plants 188
standardisation of time for observations 174
underwater observation of fish 254
abundance indices 174
bird surveys 76, 325
fish 250
mammals
footprint tracking 365
herbivore-feeding signs 364
line transects 357
runways 365
species frequency 178
accuracy 14
acoustic sampling of amphibian calls 290–1
scan searching 287
activity
codes for bird-mapping censuses 317
mammal
footprint tracking 365
runways 365
adaptive management 67–70
adaptive sampling 51–4
analysis 54
aerial counts
line transects from air 322–4
mammals 351–2, 358–9, 366
seals 366
tree-nesting bird colonies 334–5
vegetation mapping 198–200
air, mammal counts 352
Akaike’s information criterion 76–7, 119
POPAN software 182
alcohol solution 219
malaise traps 230
alert programmes 78
alternative hypothesis tests 80
filters 78–9
red/amber/green 79–80
significant 79
alert systems 77–80
algae, benthic 209–10
alligators 300
tail-scute removal 305
ammonium ions 389
measurement 391, 394
water-testing kits 399
ammonium probes 390–1
Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (ARMI) 290
amphibians
abundance data 283
aggregations 278
netting 287
scan searching 286–7
trapping 288–9
artificial cover 288, 289
breeding activity 278–9
breeding sites 278
encircling 285–6
calling 284, 287
surveys 290–1
data collection 293
decline 279–80, 293
detection probability 281–4
drift fencing 285, 285–6
eggs 278–9, 287, 291
enclosure sampling 289
extinction 279–80
habits 278
individual-recognition methods 280–1, 282
infectious diseases 293
larvae 278–9
mark–recapture methods 280–1, 291
multiple-method use 291, 292
netting 287, 291
removal studies 290
patch sampling 289–90
PIT tags 281, 282
pitfall traps 285, 285–6, 288
quadrats 289
recognition, individual 281
removal studies 290
scan searching 286–7
skin-pattern recognition 280, 282
spawn strings 287
toe-clipping 280, 282
transects 289–90
trapping 288–9, 291
removal studies 290
visual recognition 281
Analysis Browser utility 145
analysis of covariance 161
analysis of variance 62
multiple, randomised observations 158
two-way 159–60
anemometers, cup 372
angling see hook and lining, fish
ANOVA 4
aquatic systems, sediment characteristics 399–405
aquatic vegetation mapping 200–1
artificial substrates, invertebrate censusing 220
aspirators, invertebrate capture 220–1
assemblages, change monitoring in invertebrate species 215
assumptions, testing 15–16
augers 399
autoanalysers, continuous-flow 390, 391
phosphorus-compound measurement 396
auto-titration machines 386
average number estimates, precision 25
Baermann funnel 240
bait traps
aquatic invertebrates 243
crocodiles 303–4
fish 269
baits
bias 237
footprint tracking 365
invertebrate censusing 236–7
mammal traps 361
reptiles 303
crocodiles 303–4
small lizards 301
bands see ringing
bankside counts for fish 251–3
basking sites, turtles 303
bat detectors 355–6, 360
bats
call counting 360
roosts/nurseries 354–6
beam trawl 261
beating, invertebrate censusing 228
Beaufort scale 372, 373
beetles, nocturnal 215
behaviour impact of census methods
marking 95, 136
trapping 136
belt transects 197
plants 196
benthic cores, invertebrate censusing 244–5
Berlese funnel 240
bias
behavioural impact of marking/trapping 136
frequency of occurrence 174–5
handling 16
mark–recapture studies 125–6
sampling 20
unavoidable 23
sources 15–16
Wileyto et al. mark–recapture method 132
biomass, plants 187
harvesting 193–4
quadrats 190–2, 193–4
biomass estimation of fish 263
hydroacoustics methods 272
spawning stock 274–5
bird surveys
abundance 175, 174–5
indices 76, 325
abundance measurement 311
relative 312
activity codes for mapping censuses 317
burrow-nesting 332–3
capture techniques 328–31
census method choice 309–11
cliff-nesting 332
colony-nesting 331–5
complete census 309
design 308–9
detection probability difference correction 326–8
distance estimation 319, 320, 321
distance sampling 319–20, 321, 323
dropping counts 339–40
flock counts 336–7
flocking birds 313
flush counting 334
footprints 340
frequency of occurrence 171–2
ground-nesting species 333–4
high bird densities 325
indirect methods 339–40
line transects 323, 319–24
listing methods 311–13
time-periods 312
mapping censuses 317
marking methods 344
migrant counts 337–8
mist nets 329, 342
monitoring 308
nest counting in colonies 331–5
number of counts 325–6
point counts 319, 323, 324–6
playback of songs/calls 341–2
population index 308
population size 308
radio tracking 344
reporting rate 311
response to playback 333, 341–2
point counts 341
ringing 329, 330
roost counts 335–6
sample 309
seabirds 322
synchronous breeding 332
territory mapping 314–19
playback of songs/calls 341
singing 314, 318–19
timed species counts 313–14
tracking strips 340
transects 319–26
playback of songs/calls 341
tree-nesting 334–5
UK indicators 81
vocal individuality 342–4
waterfowl 322
see also calls, bird; songs, bird
black plastic sheets, reptile capture 298
boats, electrofishing 255–6
Bob James Pointy Stick (BJPS) method 400, 401
bootstrapping 32
adaptive sampling 54
stratified sampling 51
Bouyoucos method 402, 403
bowl colour, water traps 233
box traps, reptiles 303
branding, reptiles 305
Braun–Blanquet scale 191
plant quadrats 190
breeding, synchronous in birds 332
Breeding Bird Survey index 84
breeding season
bird-nest counting in colonies 331–2
territory mapping 314–15
Buchner funnel, Hartley form 381, 381
buffers, pH measurement 376
bulb types, light traps 234–5
Burnham and Overton method 114–18, 128
burrows
colonial-bird-nest counting 332–3
mammal counts 354
line transects 357
butterfly cone trap 237
calculations 16–18
precision 17
terminology 17
calendars 5–6
with divisions 6–7
calibration
double sampling 168
frequency of occurrence 172–3
indices 165, 163–6, 167
biologically based 167
calls
amphibians 284
scan searching 287
surveys 290–1
temperature effects 162
bat 355–6
bird
burrow-nesting species 333
nocturnal-songbird migrant counts 338
response to playback 341–2
singing in territory mapping 314, 318–19
vocal individuality 342–4
cameras, miniature
burrow-nesting species 333
tree-nesting-bird colonies 334
capture
bird-survey techniques 328–31
invertebrate censusing 220–1
probability constant 114–15
and recapture, continuous 132–3, 134–5
stress 361
CAPTURE program 103, 108, 115, 118, 129, 140
closed populations 181–2
mammal trapping 362
trapping webs 151–2
capture–mark–recapture methods
bird surveys 328, 330–1
burrow-nesting birds 333
vocal individuality 343
see also mark–recapture methods
capture–recapture software packages 181–2
closed populations 181–2
open populations 182
see also CAPTURE program; MARK program
carapace, notch cutting in reptiles 305
carding, Lepidoptera preserving 219–20
catchability, mark–recapture studies 100, 103, 108–10
catching without release 91
catch per unit effort (CPUE) 110, 112, 250
bird surveys 328–30
fish 263
electrofishing 256
gill-net catches 268
hook-and-line capture 266
trapping 269
CCA/CANOCO ordination technique 215
chaining method 74
change-in-ratio method 130, 131
chemical abbreviations 385
chemical analysis 390–1
phosphorus-compound measurement 396
chemocline 405
chlorinity measurement 382
cliffs, colonial-bird-nest counting 332
climate, plant phenological differences 188
clumped distribution 168
cluster sampling 35, 33–5, 36–7
adaptive 52–4
costs 34
designs 39
population-size estimation 54–7
precision 34
clustering
territory mapping 317–18
variance 30
collecting, invertebrate censusing 216
colonies, bird-nest counting 331–5
colour variation in mammals 359
Common Bird Census index 84
community, science in 68
conductivity measurement 381–2
conversion to salinity 382
dissolved-oxygen meters 389
conductivity meter 382
confidence intervals 25–7
confidence limits 14, 32
calculation 26–7
cluster sampling 55–7
random sampling 46–7
stratified sampling 51
two-level sampling 44–5
Constant Effort Sites (CES) scheme 328
continuous-flow autoanalysers 390, 391
phosphorus-compound measurement 396
corers
benthic invertebrates 244–5
cylindrical samplers 399–400
correction factors, indices 161
correlation analysis 4
correlation coefficient, Spearman’s rank 96–7
costs
cluster sampling 34
multi-level sampling 38
precision balance 14
stratification 48
counts
annual 73
attempted complete enumeration 91
catching without release 91
change-in-ratio method 130
complete 90–2
general 90–1
plotless sampling 91–2
density estimates 157
habitat sampling 90–1
incomplete 90
mammals, total 351–2
marking methods 91
observed 155
part of population 156–7
plant 188–9
removal method 129–30
repeated at same site 58–62
sample 94–129
sampling whole area 136
see also bird surveys; mark–recapture methods
covariance
analysis of 161
spatial-variation-of-numbers modelling 66–7
spreadsheets 16–17
cover
artificial for amphibians 288, 289
plants 186–7
quadrats 190, 193
transects 197
visual estimates 190, 191
Craig and du Feu continuous capture-and-recapture method 132–3, 134–5
crocodiles 300
tail-scute removal 305
trapping 303–4
cue counting 157
cylinder samples, invertebrate censusing 242–3
DAFOR (dominant, abundant, frequent, occasional or rare) 189, 196
aquatic-vegetation mapping 200
damselflies 221
data
analysis 16–18
back-transformation 32
calculations 16–18
collection 10
presentation 3–4
protocol design 4–5
required detail 8
requirement 4
security 8–9
storage 8–9
time for collection 5–7
transformation 30–2
Data Explorer utility 145
data logger 375
data sheets
creation 8–10, 10
types 9
DCA/DECORANA ordination technique 215
Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force (DAPTF) 279–80
Fieldwork Code of Practice 293
density estimation
counts 157
distance sampling 141–2, 148
bird surveys 327
hydroacoustics methods for fish 272
line transects 146, 147, 321, 323
comparison with point transects 148
phytoplankton 208–9
plants 186, 187
quadrats 190, 192
visual 193
plotless sampling 92
point counts 148, 150, 326
territory mapping 318
trapping grid 361
trapping webs 149–50
T-square sampling 92, 92, 93
underwater observation of fish 254
variance 148
visual 193
density index, timed species counts 178
depth gauges, aquatic vegetation 200
dessication funnels
bias 240
invertebrate censusing 239–40
detectability
bird surveys 327
estimation 148
function 73
gradient 148–9
detection of animals, distance sampling 142
detection probability
amphibians 281–4
difference correction in bird surveys 326–8
diet, mammalian herbivore feeding signs 364
digging in invertebrate censusing 238–9
benthic 244–5
dip nets, aquatic turtle capture 300
discriminant functions 119
displacement sampler 388
disposal procedures, water chemistry 384–5
dissolved-oxygen measurement 386, 385–9
percentage concentration 389
water-testing kits 399
distance bands
line transects 321–2
point counts 325
distance estimation
bird surveys 319, 320, 321, 325
line transects 319, 321
point counts 325
DISTANCE program 15
line transects 146
point transects 148
trapping webs 151–2
distance sampling 141–52
analysis 143–5
ancillary information 145
bird surveys 319–20, 321, 323
detectability 327–8
density estimates 141–2, 148
detection of animals 142
field methods 141–3
line transects 145–6, 319–20, 321, 323
measurement accuracy 142–3
mobile animals/stationary observer 146
passive 148–52
point transects 148
principles 141–3
DISTANCE software 144–5
distribution
normal 30
not normal 30–2
two-dimensional 21
zero counts 32
DNA recovery 136
amphibian toe-clipping 280
mammals
dung 363
hair 366
recognition 137
Domin scale 191
plant quadrats 190
double-observer method 137, 138–9
detectability in bird surveys 327
mammal counts 351
scan searching for amphibians 287
double sampling 168, 169–71
detectability in bird surveys 327
double-survey method 140
dragonflies, counting along transects 221
drift fencing
amphibians 285, 285–6
pitfall traps 285, 285–6, 302–3
reptiles 302–3
dropping counts
bird 339–40
mammals 363–4
line transects 357
drum nets, reptiles 303
dung piles
mammal counts 363–4
mammal line transects 357
D-vac samplers 226
echosounding
aquatic vegetation 200
hydroacoustics for fish catching 271–2
edge clusters, territory mapping 318
edge effect
point transects 148, 149
sample-unit size 25
territory mapping 315, 318
eggs
amphibians 278–9, 291
scan searching 287
fish 252
density 274–5
emergence traps 275
plankton nets 274–5
preservation 274
visual estimates 273
volumetric estimates 273–4
Ekman grabs 245
electrodes
oxygen 386, 389, 406
pH measurement 376–7
redox-potential measurement 405
electrofishing 254–7
advantages 257
bias 257
disadvantages 257
environmental factors 256
water conductivity 256
emergence traps 238
fish eggs 275
invertebrate censusing 237–8
aquatic 243–4
enclosure sampling, amphibians 289
endoscopes, burrow-nesting species 333
energy-flux measurement 379
enumeration, attempted complete 91
environmental-variable measurement 370–1
selection 370–1
technique 371
estimates, reliability 14–16
ethics, reptile studies 306
ethyl acetate fumes 219
ethylene glycol 223
Malaise traps 230
water traps 233–4
euphotic zone 380
estimation 380
eutrophication, nitrogenous compounds 389
evaluation surveys of invertebrates 214
extent of scale 371
extinction, amphibians 279–80
extraction of animals from habitat sample 90–1
extractors, mechanical 91
exuviae counting 221–2
feeding signs, mammalian herbivores 364
field survey monitoring of bats 355
figures 1
drawing 4
number required 2
filters 78–9
fish
abundance indices 250
bankside counts 251–3
biomass estimation 263
capture methods 250–1
catch removal from nets 258
catch per unit effort 250, 256, 263
commercial catch data 250
eggs 252
density 274–5
emergence traps 275
plankton nets 274–5
visual estimates 273
volumetric estimates 273–4
electric fishing 254–7
water conductivity 256
frightening 256
gill netting 266–9
habitats 251
hook and lining 265–6
hydroacoustics 271–2
lift netting 263–5
number estimation 263
observation methods
bankside counts 251–3
bias 254
underwater 253
push netting 263–5
sampling methods 250–1
seine netting 257–60
swimbladders 272
throw netting 263–5
trapping 269–71
trawling 260–3
underwater observation 253
fishing
hook and lining 265–6
small lizards 301
fixation, invertebrates 219
flight-interception traps 232
flipper tags, turtles 305
floats 372
flock counts, bird surveys 336–7
estimation bias 337
flotation, soil cores 239
flow meters 372–4
flush counting of birds 334
fogging, invertebrate censusing 228–9
footprints
bird surveys 340
mammal counts 364–5
formaldehyde, fish-egg preservation 274
frequency of occurrence 33, 173, 168–73, 179–80, 181
bias 174–5
calibration 172–3
correction 176
estimate of true frequency 180–1
habitats 175
methodology 174–6
plants 186, 187
quadrats 190, 192
random distribution 172
samples
location distribution 177
size 176–7
subdivision 177–81
sampling strategy 176–7
standardisation 174–5, 176
statistical manipulation 177
subsamples 177–8
timed species counts 178
transects 143–4
unstandardised observations 174
freshwater
ammonium-ion measurement 391
nitrate-ion measurement 391
nitrogenous compounds 391
phosphorus-compound measurement 398
phytoplankton 207–8
Winkler titration 386
funnel traps 288
reptiles 303
funnel-box traps, reptiles 298
fur clips, seals 366
fyke nets 270, 269–70, 271
gamebirds, dropping counts 339
Gantt charts 7
gaps between samples 23
generalised models
additive 76–7
linear 75, 74–6
Geographical Information System (GIS)
functionality of system 15
vegetation mapping 198, 199
GEOMEAN program 82
germination tests, seedbank sampling 205
gill netting 267, 266–7, 269
advantages 268
bias 268–9
disadvantages 268
selectivity 268
glassware for water chemistry 385
Global Amphibian Assessment (IUCN) 279
Global Positioning System (GPS)
aquatic-vegetation mapping 200
gradsects 196
lake-vegetation mapping 201
pitfall-trap randomisation 224
vegetation mapping 198, 199
glue, lizard catching 301–2, 304
Go Flow Flask 381
goodness-of-fit tests, mark–recapture studies 103–7
gouge auger 399–400
grabs, invertebrate censusing 244–5
gradsects 197
plants 196, 197
grain of scale 371
graphs 1
drawing 4
required 2–3
grass tussocks 220
vacuum sampling 226–7
grids, points on 22–3
ground-nesting species, bird surveys 333–4
groundwater, nitrate-ion measurement 391
habitats
disturbance in reptile capture 298–9
fish 251
frequency of occurrence 175
sampling for complete counts 90–1
hair catchers, mammal 365–6
hair tubes, mammal 365–6
hand nets 287
hand-capture of reptiles 297–301
advantages/disadvantages 300
bias 300–1
hazards, water chemistry 383–5
Heath traps 234–5
hibernation-site monitoring of bats 355
hides, tower 334
histograms 3, 4
home range of mammals 365
hook and lining, fish 265–6
humidity measurement 375–6
hydroacoustics, fish catching 271–2
hydrographs 375
hydrometers 383
hygrometers 375–6
identification
accuracy 137
invertebrates 215
immigration, trapping webs 149–50
index of numbers 13, 155–67
abundance 174
calibration 165, 163–6, 167
biologically based 167
correction factors 161
counts
density estimates 157
part of population 156–7
cue counting 157
double sampling 168, 169–71
extrapolation 167
ideal 155–6
minimum known to be alive 157
multiple, randomised observations 158
non-linear relationships 164, 167
ratio 155–6
estimators 167
population density 161–3
variation 158–61, 167
regression techniques 161
standardisation of methods 158
timed species counts 179
two-way analysis of variance 159–60
value comparison 158
variation 158–67
allowing for 159–61
see also population indices
indicator paper, pH measurement 376
indicators 80–3
multi-species population 83
indigocarmine staining 206
infectious diseases
amphibians 293
bat colonies 356
mammal handling 362
information criterion of Akaike 76–7, 119
POPAN software 182
Integrated Population Monitoring programme 70
interception methods for sample counts 152–4
interception traps, invertebrate censusing 231–2, 237
inter-observer variability
bankside counts for fish 252
cover estimates 197
invertebrates
abundance-change monitoring 214–15
aquatic
bait traps 243
direct searching/observation 240–1
emergence traps 243–4
kick sampling 245
beating of foliage 228
benthic cores 244–5
capture 220–1
censusing techniques 216–20
cylinder samples 242–3
dessication funnels 239–40
digging 238–9
for benthic 244–5
direct searching/collecting 216
direct searching/observation 220–2
emergence traps 237–8
evaluation surveys 214
extraction from substrate 216–19
exuviae counting 221–2
fixation 219
fogging 228–9
grabs 244–5
identification 215
interception traps 231–2, 237
kick sampling 245
killing 219–20
light traps 234–6
litter samples 239–40
preserving 219–20
as prey 215
prey abundance 215
sampling 215
soil cores 238–9
sorting 215
storing 219–20
survey commissioning 215–16
sweep netting 225–6
trapping 216
vacuum sampling 226–8
water traps 232–4
wet sieving 244–5
window traps 231–2
see also Malaise traps; pitfall traps
IUCN Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA) 279
jack-knife methods 32
Jolly–Seber mark–recapture method 89, 120–2, 128
bird surveys 330–1
capture histories for batch-specific marks 122
goodness-of-fit test 126–7
main calculations 123–5
preliminary calculation 120–1
software packages 182
kick sampling, invertebrate censusing 245
killing, invertebrates 219–20
killing bottles 219
Kipp solarimeters 379
knowledge of species 13
kriging 67
labelling, invertebrate specimens 220
lag of scale 371
lakes, vegetation mapping 201
larvae, amphibian 278–9
Lepidoptera
counting along transects 221
preserving 219–20
lift netting 264
fish 263–5
light measurement 378–80
aquatic 380
percentile absorption 380
light meters, underwater 380
light traps
bias 236
invertebrate censusing 234–6
likelihood ratios 119
Lincoln index 330–1
line intercepts
animals associated with definite tracks 154
counts 153–4
cover 153
differences from line transects 146
plants 196
tracks 153
line transects 145–6, 147
advantages 323–4
from the air 322–4
bird surveys 323, 319–24
ground-nesting 333–4
counting instructions 319
density estimates 321, 323
detection function 356–7
disadvantages 323–4
distance bands 321–2
distance between 321
distance estimation 319, 321
distance sampling 319–20, 321
frequency distribution 143
length 321
mammal counts 354, 357, 356–7, 358
aerial surveys 358
methods 320–2
perpendicular distance 145, 356, 357, 358
point counts 324
comparison with 148, 326
recording 321–2
routes 320–1
at sea 322, 324
trapping 152
triangular 321
visit numbers 321
walking speed 319
lines, fishing 265–6
litter samples, invertebrate censusing 239–40
lizard grabber 301–2
lizards
arboreal 304
glue traps 301–2, 304
hand-capture 297–301
noosing 301–2
Longworth traps 360–1
Lugol’s iodine solution 208
Lund counting chamber 209
lures, small lizards 301
McKinnon lists 178, 312
macrophytes, aquatic 200
Malaise traps 230
bias 231
invertebrate trapping 216, 229–31
window–trap combination 231
mammals 351
aerial surveys 358–9
aquatic 157, 351, 359, 360
colony counts 366–7
bat roosts/nurseries 354–6
call counting 360
colour variation 359
decision tree for census techniques 352
DNA recovery
dung 363
hair 366
dung counting 363–4
footprint counts 364–5
hair tubes/catchers 365–6
herbivore feeding signs 364
home range 365
individual recognition 359–60
infectious-disease risk 362
line transects 354, 357, 356–7, 358
aerial surveys 358
nesting structures 354
photography 351–2, 358
quadrats 354
dung 363
resting structures 354
runway counts 364–5
strip transects in aerial surveys 358
territoriality 365
total counts 351–2
trap types 360–1
trapping 360–2
dung-count calibration 363
undercounting 352, 358–9
management change monitoring 72
Mann–Witney tests 4
mapped variables, spatial variation of numbers modelling 66
mapping censuses
bird surveys 317
individual plants 210–12
maps 3
MAPS (Monitoring Avian Productivity and Survival) programme 328–9
marine coastal systems, water-flow measurement 374
MARK program 127, 182
mammal trapping 362
ring-recovery models 182
marking methods
batch-specific 120–2
behaviour effects 136
bird surveys 344
counts 91
at each capture 114–15
individual 114–15, 122
plants 210–12
loss of marks 94–5
mark–recapture techniques 94–5
not needed 98
reptile 305–6
resighting 95–8
seals 366
without capture 136
mark–recapture methods 94–129
amphibians 280–1, 291
ancillary-information use 127
availability for trapping 99
bias 125–6
Burnham and Overton method 114–18, 128
burrow-nesting birds 333
capture
histories for batch-specific marks 122
occasions 98
catchability 100, 103, 108–10
differences 99–100
choosing between methods 118–19
closed populations 98
Craig and du Feu continuous capture-and-recapture method 132–3, 134–5
goodness-of-fit tests 103–7
hook-and-line fish capture 266
individual recognition of mammals 359
mammals
individual recognition 359–60
trapping 362
models
modified 127
robust 128
multiple recaptures in closed populations 102–19
open populations 98
population estimates 100, 101, 102–3
primary periods 128
proportion captured 99, 100–1
radiotelemetry 127
reptiles 306
resightings 127
robust model 73
Schnabel method 112–14
seals 366
secondary periods 128
simulation models 119
simultaneous 132
trap responses 99–100
trappability
differences 99–100
heterogeneity 115
trapping effort 107–8
trapping-grid area 128–9
trapping webs 151–2
two-sample methods 100–2, 101
Wileyto et al. method 132, 133
without capture 98, 136–40
see also capture–mark–recapture methods; Jolly–Seber mark–recapture method; pseudo-removal method; removal method
maternity colony monitoring of bats 355
maximum-likelihood estimates
N-mixture models 141
POPAN software 182
mean (statistical) 26, 25–7
calculation of geometric 82
cluster sampling 55–7
random sampling 46–7
sample-size estimation 29
stratified sampling 48
two-level sampling 44–5
metal sheets, reptile capture 298
migration
bird counts 337–8
diurnal species 337–8
nocturnal songbirds 338
continuous 154–5
funnels/bottlenecks 337–8
sample counts 154–5
stop-over sites 155
minimum known to be alive (MNA) 157
mirrors, tree-nesting-bird colonies 334
mist nets 329, 342
monitoring 67–85
adaptive management 67–70
birds 308
filters 78–9
indicators 80–3
indices 158
management changes 72
multiple sample sites 74
population
estimates 158
long-term trends 72
short-term variation 72
programme
consistency 84–5
method changes 84
planning 83
review 83–4
single sample sites 73–4
statistical significance 79–80
surveillance 68–70
target setting 68
moon-watching, nocturnal-songbird migrant counts 338
mortality, marking potential impact 95
mouse glue, lizard catching 301–2, 304
mudflats
penetrability 400
redox potential 405
multi-level sampling 43
costs 38
optimal distribution 38
precision 38
two-level 43
multiple-catch traps 361
multi-state models 183
National Vegetation Classification (UK) 198
negative binomial distribution 30
zero-inflated 32
nest counting
bird colonies 331–5
failure rate in bird surveys 332
mammals 354
net bags, vacuum sampling 227
net traps, tortoises 303
nets
cast 263
drum 303
electrofishing 255
fyke 270, 269–70, 271
hand for amphibian netting 287
invertebrate capture 220–1, 225–6
lift 263, 264
mesh size 268, 271
fish-egg collection 274
mist 329, 342
monofilament 268–9, 274
multifilament 268–9
plankton 208, 208, 274–5
purse seine 258–60
push 263–5
selectivity 268
trammel 267, 268
turtle capture 300
twine 268–9
water-transported seeds 202
see also gill netting; seine netting; trawling
netting
amphibians 287, 291
removal studies 290
pond 241–2
New Jersey trap 236
Niskin Flask 381
nitrate ions 389
measurement 391, 392
nitrate probes 390–1
nitrogen, soluble 389
nitrogenous-compound measurement 389
water-testing kits 399
N-mixture models 140–1
noosing, reptiles 301–2
noosing gun 301
null hypothesis 79–80
numbers
changes with repeated counts at same site 60
spatial-variation modelling 65–7
tests of equality 103–4
tests of trends 104–5
observation-based methods 183
amphibian individual-recognition methods 280–1, 282
fish
bankside counts 251–3
egg visual estimates 273
underwater 253
invertebrate censusing 220–2
aquatic 240–1
occurrence see frequency of occurrence
orthophosphate 396
otter trawl 261, 262
Owen emergence traps 237, 238
oxidation–reduction potential 405
oxygen
dissolved 386, 385–9
percentage concentration 389
water-testing kits 399
soils/sediments 405–6
solubility in water 390
water sampling 388
oxygen electrode 386, 389
paint marks
reptiles 305
seals 366
passive-integrated-transponder (PIT) tags
amphibians 281, 282
reptiles 305
patch sampling, amphibians 289–90
patchiness, plants 187–8
penetrometers 400, 401
percentage relative precision (PRP) 14, 15
population trapped 108
pseudo-removal method 111
removal method 111
sample size 27
random sampling 28–9
two-level sampling 42–3
percentile absorption 380
Petersen method 330–1
pH measurement 376–7
dissolved-oxygen meters 389
soil 404–5
pH meters
ammonium/nitrate probes 390–1
redox-potential measurement 405
phosphorus
dissolved 396
particulate 396
soluble reactive 396, 396, 398
phosphorus-compound measurement 396–8
water-testing kits 399
photography
aerial vegetation mapping 198–200
amphibian skin-pattern recognition 280
birds
migrant 337–8
nest counting of colonial 332
mammal counts 351–2, 358, 366
individual recognition 359
plant mapping 212
seals 366
see also cameras, miniature
photometers 379–80
photon flux density 378–9
energy-flux conversion 379
equipment 379
underwater light meters 380
photon irradiance 378–9
photosynthesis, limitation by turbidity 380
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) 379
phytoplankton 207–9
density estimates 208–9
preservation 208
pie charts 3–4
pilot study 13
pinning, Lepidoptera preserving 219–20
PIT tags see passive-integrated-transponder (PIT) tags
pitfall traps 223
advantages 224
amphibians 285, 285–6, 288
baited 224
bias 224–5
disadvantages 224
drift fencing 285, 285–6, 302–3
emptying 224
invertebrate trapping 216, 222–5
mammals 361
methods 222–4
nocturnal beetles 215
positioning 224
preservatives 223
randomisation 224
reptiles 302–3
tortoises 303
plankton nets 208, 208
for fish eggs 274–5
planning
reverse 1, 2, 10
revision 10
time availability 7–8
plant pots, mesh-based 202, 202
plant-available water 403–4
plants 186–8
abundance 186–7
belt transects 196, 197
classification 188
counts 188–9
cover 197
gradsects 196, 197
line intercepts 196
mapping/marking of individual 210–12
phenological differences 188
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) 379
quadrats 189–94
gradsects 196
point 194–5
rare species 195
seed traps 201–3
sessile 187–8
taxonomic groupings 188
transects 196–7
see also algae, benthic; phytoplankton; seedbanks; seeds; vegetation, mapping
playback, response to in bird surveys 341–2
burrow-nesting species 333
point counts 150
bird surveys 319, 323, 324–6
playback of songs/calls 341
density estimation 148
distance bands 325
distance estimation 325
distance sampling 148
edge effect 148, 149
frequency distribution 144
subdivided 140
underwater observation of fish 253
point frame 195
point quadrats 152, 194–5
point sampling, electrofishing 255–6
Poisson distribution 30, 75, 105
continuous capture and recapture 133
goodness-of-fit test 105–7
N-mixture models 141
zero-inflated 32
zero-truncated 105, 107
Poisson equation 168
poles, fishing 265
pollutants
nitrogenous compounds 389
phosphorus compounds 396, 398
pond netting
aquatic invertebrates 241–2
bias 242
pooters 221
invertebrate capture 220–1
POPAN program 182
population
absolute size 272
closed
continuous capture and recapture 132
continuous mark–recapture method 132
mark–recapture 128
mark–recapture studies 98, 125–6
multiple recaptures in mark–recapture studies 102–19
testing for 96–7
comparing two or more areas 62–5
counts of part 156–7
long-term trends 72
loss from 120
mean and repeated counts at same site 60–2
monitoring process 69
multi-species indicators 83
open
mark–recapture studies 98, 125–6, 128
multiple recapture 119–27
testing for 96–7
peak and repeated counts at same site 60–2
recruitment to 120
short-term variation 72
size estimation
cluster sampling 54–7
territory mapping 318
unified analysis across sites/times 73
population density
index ratio 161–3
mammal trapping 362
population estimates
invertebrates 221
mammal trapping 362
mark–recapture studies 100, 101, 102–3
monitoring 158
precision 19
software packages 181–3
total size 27
population indices 155–67
birds 308
playback of songs/calls 341–2
capture techniques in bird surveys 328
population size
bird surveys 308
capture techniques 328, 329, 331
playback of songs/calls 342
mammal trapping 362
total 27
pot gear 270, 269–70, 271
precision 14
average-number estimates 25
cluster sampling 34
cost balance 14
measurement 14
multi-level sampling 38
population estimates 19
repeated counts at same site 58
sampling 20, 27
stratified sampling 49–50
preservatives, pitfall traps 223
preserving, invertebrates 219–20
prey abundance, invertebrate censuses 215
probability (statistical)
critical 79
N-mixture models 141
process models 77
productivity, post-fledging 329
propylene glycol 223
Malaise traps 230
water traps 233–4
protocols 1
design 4–5
pseudo-removal method 108, 107–10, 111
goodness-of-fit test 110–12
percentage relative precision 111
push netting, fish 263–5
quadrat boxes
aquatic habitats 289
invertebrate censusing 221
quadrats
abundance measures 191
advantages 192–4
amphibians 289
bias 194
disadvantages 192–4
ground-nesting-bird surveys 333–4
mammal counts 354
dung 363
multiple 190
nested 192–3
permanent 211
plants 189–94
gradsects 196
individual mapping 211
point 152, 194–5
quantum radiometers 379
questions, research 1
results required 2–4
specific 2
radar, bird counts 338
radio tracking, bird surveys 344
radiometers 379
quantum 379
radiotelemetry 127
rain gauges 374
rainfall measurement 374
random distribution
abundance 172
occurrence 172
T-square sampling 93
random sampling 36–7, 53
plotless sampling for complete counts 91–2
sample size 28–9
random strips 24
randomisation
comparing two or more study areas 65
computer-intensive 32
randomised blocks 66
complete 65
randomness 20
deviations from 20–3
raptors, migrant counts 337–8
ratio estimators 167
reagents for water chemistry 385
recapture
multiple in open populations 119–27
software packages 181–2
recognition, individual
amphibians 281, 280–1, 282
mammals 359–60
DNA in dung 363
vocal in bird surveys 342–4
without capture 136–7
recruitment, multiple-recapture methods 120
redox potential 405
regression analysis 4
data from single site 73–4
generalized linear models 74–6
route 77
regression techniques, indices of numbers 161
RELEASE program 182
remote sensing
gradsects 196
vegetation mapping 198–200
removal method 108–10, 130, 129–30
amphibians 290
detectability in bird surveys 327
goodness-of-fit test 110–12, 112
percentage relative precision 111
representativeness in sampling 19–20
reptiles
activity periods 299
aquatic species 300
autotomous 299
bags for holding 300
baits 303
black plastic sheets 298
box traps 303
branding 305
capture 297
drift fencing 302–3
drum nets 303
ectothermy 297
ethics of studies 306
funnel traps 303
habitat disturbance 298–9
hand capture 297–301
individual marking 305–6
mark–recapture methods 306
nocturnal 299
noosing 301–2
paint marks 305
pipes in capture 299
PIT tags 305
pitfall traps 302–3
scale clipping 305
searching techniques 298
sticky traps 304
surveys 297
tattooing 305
tin sheets 298
toe-clipping 305
trapping 302–4
advantages 304
bias 304
disadvantages 304
research
to action 70
design 1
questions 1, 2–4
surveillance 68–70
resightings 127
bird surveys 330–1
marked-animal mixing 95–6
resting structures, mammal counts 354
results, required 2–4
reverse planning 1, 2
revision 10
ring-recovery models 182
ringing
capture–mark–recapture methods 330
constant effort in bird surveys 329, 330
response to playback use 342
river banks, invertebrate censusing 220
rivers
kick sampling 245
vegetation mapping 200
Robinson traps 235, 234–5
rocky shores, zonation patterns of taxa 374
rods, fishing 265
roost counts
bats 354–6
bird surveys 335–6
rotational sampling 72
route regression 77
runway counts, mammals 364–5
safety, water chemistry 383–5
salinity measurement 382–3, 384
conductivity conversion 382
salinity meters 383
hand-held 383
sample(s) 13–14
cluster numbers 38
gaps between 23
layout 33–67
sample counts 94–129
distance sampling 141–52
double-observer method 137
double-survey method 140
interception methods 152–4
migrating animals 154–5
N-mixture models 140–1
subdivided point counts 140
trapping methods 129–36
whole area 136
see also mark–recapture methods
sample sites
area differences 63–4, 65
randomised blocks 66
management-change monitoring 72
multiple 74
multiple visits 58–60
single 73–4
unequal area 31
unplanned loss 71–2
sample size
estimation 27–9
random sampling 28–9
sample units 18, 20
clustering 34
distance travelled 24
size 24–5
two-dimensional distribution 21
unequal 29–30
units to sample 27–9
sampling
adaptive 51–4
bias 20
sources 15–16
unavoidable 23
cluster 36–7
population-size estimation 54–7
definitions 18
design 14–15
for surveillance 71–2
distribution
normal 30
not normal 30–2
effort-optimal allocation 49–50
frame 18, 19
inaccessible areas 22
intensiveness 22
invertebrates 215
location distribution 177
multi-level 43
objectives 13
plotless 91–2
points on grids 22–3
precision 20, 27
random 20, 36–7
deviations from 20–3
statistics 46–7
regular 21–2
replication need 18–19
representative 19–20
rotational 72
strategy for frequency of occurrence 176–7
stratified 49, 43–50, 51
precision 49–50
two-level 41–3, 43, 101–2, 177
percentage relative precision 42–3
statistical calculations 44–5
unified analysis across sites/times 73
using same location for surveillance 71
see also cluster sampling
sampling-unit shape 23–4
sand tracking 364–5
satellite imaging, vegetation mapping 198–200
scale, ecological 371
scale clipping, reptiles 305
scan searching, amphibians 286–7
scattergrams 3, 4, 29–30
scents, footprint tracking 365
Schnabel method 113, 112–14, 115
goodness-of-fit test 116
science, community relevance 68
SCUBA diving 253, 254
aquatic vegetation 200
fish-egg collection 274
roving transects 253–4
sea/seawater
conductivity measurement 381–2
line transects 322, 324
nitrate-ion measurement 391
nitrogenous compounds 391
phosphorus-compound measurement 398
phytoplankton 207–8
salinity measurement 382–3
Winkler titration 386
seabirds
line transects 322, 324
from the air 322
radar migrant counts 338
seals/sea lions
call counting 360
colony counts 366–7
searching in invertebrate censusing 216, 220–2
aquatic 240–1
standardised 221
Seatest Specific Gravity Meter 383
Secchi disc 380
sediments
benthic algae 209–10
characteristics 399–405
marine 405
oxygen content 405–6
particle-size measurement 402–3
redox potential 405
seedbank sampling 204
shear strength 400–2
water-transported seeds 202
seed rain 203
seed traps 202, 201–3
seed trays 202
germination tests 205
seedbanks
germination tests 205, 206–7
sampling 204–7
seed counting 206
soil samples 204–5
seeds
chilling 205, 206–7
counting 206
distribution in soil 207
dormancy 205, 206–7
germination 202–3
tests 205, 206–7
identification 202–3
predation 203
viability 203, 206
seine netting 259, 257–9, 260
advantages 260
amphibians 287
bias 260
disadvantages 260
purse nets 258–60
shear vane 400–2
Sherman traps 361
shore
height above 378, 377–8
zonation patterns of taxa on rocky shores 374
simulation models, computer-based 16
simulations 17
skin-pattern recognition, amphibians 280, 282
Skinner traps 234–5
slope angles 377–8
smoothing techniques 74
snake tongs 299
snakes
hand-capture 297–301
venomous 299–300
snorkelling 253, 254
snow
mammal tracking 364–5
measurement 374
soil
Bouyoucos method 402, 403
characteristics 399–405
classification of types 399–400
clay fraction 403
moisture 403–4
organic content 404–5
oxygen content 405–6
particle size 402, 402
penetrability 400, 401
pH measurement 377, 404–5
profiles 399–400
silt fraction 403
surface hardness 400
textures 402, 404
soil cores 204
bias 239
invertebrate censusing 238–9
soil pits 399
soil samples, seedbanks 204–5
solarimeters 379
sonar, hydroacoustics for fish catching 271–2
songbirds, nocturnal migrant 338
songs, bird
response to playback 341–2
vocal individuality 342–4
sonograms 342–4
sorting, invertebrates 215
sound spectrograms 342–4
spatial patterns, kriging 67
spawn, amphibians 287
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient 96–7
critical values 97
species
assemblage-change monitoring 215
indicator 82–3
knowledge of 13
species detection, McKinnon lists 178
species distribution 168
clumped 168, 171
species diversity, underwater observation of fish 254
specific gravity 383, 384
spectroradiometers 379
spreadsheets 16–17
simulations 17
standard deviation, sample-size estimation 29
standard error, calculation 26, 25–7
standardisation of methods, index-ratio variation 158
statistical significance 79–80
statistics 4
frequency of occurrence 177
normality assumption 30
not normal distribution 30–2
random sampling 46–7
spreadsheets 16
two-level sampling 44–5
Stevenson screen 375
sticky traps
reptiles 301–2, 304
seeds 201–2, 203
stop-over sites, migration 155
storage of invertebrates 219–20
stratification 43–51
spatial-variation-of-numbers modelling 65–6
technique 47–8
stratified sampling 45, 43–5, 51
bootstrapping 51
confidence limits 51
costs 48
effort allocation 48
intensity 48
post-stratification 48–51
stratum size 51
stratum weight 48
strip transects 51
streams, kick sampling 245
stress of capture 361
strip transects 52–3
differences from line transects 146
mammal counts with aerial surveys 358
stratified sampling 51
strips
sampling units 23–4
size 25
study-area comparisons 62–5
subsampling
frequency of occurrence 177–8
mechanical extraction 91
timed species counts 178
substrate, invertebrate extraction 216–19
sugar bait for moths 236
sulphides 405
sunshine duration 377
Surber sampler 246
SURGE program 182
multi-state model 183
surveillance 67–70, 85
alert systems 77–80
filters 78–9
generalized models
additive 76–7
linear 74–6
indicators 80–3
process models 77
route regression 77
sampling design 71–2
statistical significance 79–80
targets 78
time scales 78
surveying sins 408–10
SURVIV program 137, 182
multi-state model 183
ring-recovery models 182
survival rate
adult birds 329
stop-over sites 155
suspended solids monitor 381
sweep netting, invertebrates 225–6
swimbladders 272
swimming speed, underwater observation of fish 253
t tests 4
tables 2–3
number required 2
tags, reptiles 305
tail-scute removal, crocodiles 305
tape loops 341
target setting 68
targets 78
tattooing of reptiles 305
temperature
call-rate effects 162
conversion 375
difference measurement 379
measurement 374–5
territoriality, mammals 365
territory mapping 166
advantages 318
bias 318–19
bird surveys 314–19
playback of songs/calls 341
singing 318–19
breeding season 314–15
disadvantages 318
map analysis 315–18
scale 314, 315
study-plot mapping 314
tetrazolium staining 206
thermographs 375
thermometers 374–5
wet/dry bulb 375–6
thermopiles 379
three-point moving average 74
throw netting of fish 263–5
time
allocation 7–8
availability 5–7
scales 78
timed species counts (TSC) 178, 179
bird surveys 313–14
tin sheets, reptile capture 298
toe-clipping
amphibians 280, 282
reptiles 305
tortoises
hand-capture 297–301, 303
pitfall traps 303
tower hides 334
tracking
line intercepts 153
sand 364–5
snow 364–5
tracking strips in bird surveys 340
trammel nets 267, 268
transects
amphibians 289–90
bird surveys 319–26
playback of songs/calls 341
electrofishing 255–6
fixed for underwater observation of fish 253
invertebrate censusing 221
permanent 211
plants 196–7
roving for underwater observation of fish 253
see also line intercepts; line transects; point counts; strip transects
trap responses, mark–recapture studies 99–100
trappability
continuous capture and recapture 133
differences 99–100
heterogeneity 115
trapping
amphibians 288–9, 291
removal studies 290
barriers 269–71
behaviour effects 136
crocodiles 303–4
designs 361–2
effort 107–8
fish 269–71
invertebrate censusing 216
line transects 152
mammals 360–2
dung-count calibration 363
multiple sessions 362
reptiles 302–4
sample counts 129–36
selectivity 271
see also mark–recapture methods
trapping grid 361, 362
area 128–9, 361, 362
square 129–30
trapping line transects 152
trapping webs 151, 148–51, 152
traps
bait
aquatic invertebrates 243
crocodiles 303–4
fish 269
funnel 288, 303
funnel-box 298
mammal 360–1
see also baits; named types of traps
trawling 260–3
advantages 263
bias 263
depth 261
disadvantages 263
nets 262
speed 261
tree-canopy fogging 228–9
tree-nesting-bird colonies 334–5
TRIM program 75
T-square sampling 92, 92, 93
turbidity measurement 380–1
turbidity meters 381
turtles 300
basking sites 303
flipper tags 305
tussocks
invertebrate censusing 220
vacuum sampling 226–7
two-level sampling 43
two-sample method 40
mark–recapture methods 100–12, 112
UK indicators for birds 81
ultraviolet (UV) light 379
vacuum sampling 226
advantages 227
biases 227–8
disadvantages 227
invertebrates 226–8
method 226–7
variables, mapped 66
variance
calculation 25, 26–7
cluster sampling 55–7
clustering 30
homogeneity 37
spreadsheets 16–17
stratified sampling 48
variation
numbers over time 61–2
quantification in field 8
vegetation
beating 228
groundtruthing 199
invertebrate censusing 220
mapping
aquatic 200–1
ground 198
terrestrial 197–200
types 198
point quadrats 195
quadrats 190
transects 197
vacuum sampling 226–7
vocal individuality, bird surveys 342–4
volunteers, bird monitoring 308
water
conductivity measurement 381–2
filtering 381, 381
free-draining 403–4
light measurement 380
oxygen
sampling 388
solubility 390
pH measurement 376–7
phosphorus compounds 396
plant-available 403–4
plant-unavailable 403–4
reagents for water chemistry 385
sampling 208
seed transport 202
seedbank sampling in sediments 204
total nitrogen 389
turbidity measurement 380–1
see also freshwater; sea/seawater
water chemistry 383–5
safety 383–5
water flow 371–2
measurement 372–4
water-testing kits 390, 399
phosphorus-compound measurement 396
water traps 233
bias 234
invertebrate censusing 232–4
waterfowl, line transects from the air 322
wave action 374
websites, software packages 181
weirs 269–71
wet sieving, invertebrates 244–5
whales
call counting 360
counts 155, 351
cue counting 157
individual recognition 359
wildfowl, dropping counts 339–40
Wileyto et al. mark–recapture method 132, 133
wind
direction and wave fetch 374
flow 371–2
wind gauges, hand-held 372
wind vanes 372
wind-velocity measurement 372
window traps
bias 232
invertebrate censusing 231–2
Winkler titration 386, 386
wire-mesh traps 361
zero counts 32
zooplankton, cylinder samples 242–3
Zurich–Montpellier vegetation classification 198