Few monuments have fascinated people as much as the Parthenon. Two and a half millennia after its construction this monument continues to generate important research across a wide range of fields, from classics and art history to archaeology and the physical sciences. This book, which grew out of a conference held at the University of Missouri–St. Louis, presents the latest developments in Parthenon research by an international cast of scholars and scientists. It offers new interpretations of some of the most crucial issues, ranging from the authorship of the frieze to the reconstruction of its missing sculpture, as well as the sociopolitical context in which the monument was created and the application of new technologies in Parthenon studies. Showcasing the most up-to-date research on the Parthenon, this book not only presents the current state of Parthenon studies but also marks the future direction of scholarship.
Michael B. Cosmopoulos is the Hellenic Government–Karakas Foundation Chair of Greek Studies and Professor of Greek Archaeology at the University of Missouri–St. Louis. An archaeologist of ancient Greece from the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic period, he has authored and edited eleven books, including The Rural History of the Greek City-States and Greek Mysteries: The Archaeology and Ritual of Greek Secret Cults.
EDITED BY |
MICHAEL B. COSMOPOULOS |
University of Missouri–St. Louis |
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© Cambridge University Press 2004
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no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2004
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
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ISBN 0 521 83673 5 hardback
List of Figures | page vii | |
On Abbreviations and Transliteration | xiii | |
List of Contributors | xv | |
INTRODUCTION: THE METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF PARTHENON STUDIES | 1 | |
Michael B. Cosmopoulos | ||
1 | A NEW ANALYSIS OF THE PARTHENON FRIEZE | 5 |
Sarantis Symeonoglou | ||
2 | CLASSIC MOMENTS: TIME IN THE PARTHENON FRIEZE | 43 |
Jenifer Neils | ||
3 | WORK SECTIONS AND REPEATING PATTERNS IN THE PARTHENON FRIEZE | 63 |
John G. Younger | ||
4 | PANDORA AND THE PANATHENAIC PEPLOS | 86 |
Noel Robertson | ||
5 | A RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTHENON’S EAST PEDIMENT | 114 |
Georgios Mostratos | ||
6 | THE PARTHENON EAST METOPES, THE GIGANTOMACHY, AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY | 150 |
Katherine A. Schwab | ||
7 | THE PARTHENON IN 1687: NEW SOURCES | 166 |
William St. Clair and Robert Picken | ||
8 | INTRAQUARRY SOURCING OF THE PARTHENON MARBLES: APPLICATIONS OF THE PENTELIC MARBLE STABLE ISOTOPE DATABASE | 196 |
Scott Pike | ||
9 | CONCLUSION: THE CURRENT STATE OF PARTHENON RESEARCH | 207 |
Jenifer Neils | ||
Index | 211 |
1.1 | East frieze, block VI, figures 38–40 | page 7 |
1.2 | Block EⅥ, detail of midsection of E38 | 7 |
1.3 | Block EⅥ, detail of lower part of E38 | 8 |
1.4 | Block EⅥ, torso of E39 | 9 |
1.5 | Block EⅥ, detail from upper part of E40 | 9 |
1.6 | Block EⅥ, detail of middle part of E40 | 10 |
1.7 | North frieze, block Ⅱ, figures 3–5 | 11 |
1.8 | Block NⅡ, detail of upper part of N3 | 11 |
1.9 | Block NⅡ, detail of lower part of N3 | 12 |
1.10 | Block NⅡ, detail of upper part of N4 | 12 |
1.11 | Block NⅡ, detail of lower part of N4 | 13 |
1.12 | Block NⅡ, detail of upper part of N5 | 14 |
1.13 | Block NⅡ, detail of lower part of N5 | 15 |
1.14 | Block NⅡ, head of cow behind N4 | 16 |
1.15 | North frieze, block Ⅳ, figures 9–12 | 16 |
1.16 | Block NⅣ, lower part of N10–11 | 17 |
1.17 | Block NⅣ, detail of upper part of N10 | 17 |
1.18 | Block NⅣ, detail of mid-low parts of N10 | 19 |
1.19 | Block NⅣ, detail of feet of N12 | 19 |
1.20 | North frieze, block Ⅵ, figures 16–19 | 20 |
1.21 | Block NⅥ, heads of N16–17 | 20 |
1.22 | Block NⅥ, upper parts of N18–19 | 21 |
1.23 | North frieze, block Ⅷ, figures 26–29 | 21 |
1.24 | Block NⅧ, detail of lower part of N26 | 22 |
1.25 | Block NⅧ, detail of middle parts of N27–28 | 22 |
1.26 | North frieze, block Ⅸ, figures 30–37 | 23 |
1.27 | North frieze, block Ⅹ, figures 38–43 | 23 |
1.28 | Block NⅧ, detail of lower part of N29 | 24 |
1.29 | Block NⅩ, detail of lower part of N38 | 25 |
1.30 | Block NⅧ, detail of lower part of N26 | 25 |
1.31 | Block NⅨ, detail of middle part of N35 | 27 |
1.32 | Block NⅩ, detail of heads of N39–40 | 27 |
1.33 | Block NⅩ, torso of N38 | 28 |
1.34 | Block NⅩ, detail of lower parts of N39–42 | 29 |
1.35 | North frieze, block Ⅺ, figure 44 | 29 |
1.36 | Block NⅪ, torso of N44 | 30 |
1.37 | Block NⅪ, detail of legs of N44 | 30 |
1.38 | Block NⅪ, detail of horse | 31 |
1.39 | North frieze, block ⅩⅨ, figure 58 | 31 |
1.40 | Block NⅩⅨ, detail of torso of N58 and horses | 33 |
1.41 | Block NⅩⅨ, detail of horse | 33 |
1.42 | Block NⅩⅨ, detail of hooves | 34 |
1.43 | North frieze, block ⅩⅩⅢ, figures 63–65 | 34 |
1.44 | Block ⅩⅩⅢ, heads of N63–64 | 35 |
1.45 | Block NⅩⅩⅢ, torso of N64 | 35 |
1.46 | Block NⅩⅩⅢ, detail of middle part of N64 | 37 |
1.47 | Block NⅩⅩⅢ, detail of middle part of N65 | 37 |
2.1 | Symposium; Attic red-figure volute-krater attributed to Euthymides, c. 515–510 BC | 44 |
2.2 | Plan of the Parthenon frieze | 45 |
2.3 | North frieze cavalcade with rank leaders | 48 |
2.4 | North 105, detail | 49 |
2.5 | West 30, cast | 53 |
2.6 | West ⅩⅢ, cast | 55 |
2.7 | East Ⅵ, cast | 57 |
2.8 | Peplos ceremony: East Ⅴ, figures 31–35 | 59 |
3.1 | Pavlos Samios sculpting a frieze based on the Siphnian Treasury | 64 |
3.2 | Unfinished Roman sarcophagus, Pergamon | 65 |
3.3 | Tombstone of Hegeso | 66 |
3.4 | Nereid monument, frieze block 860 | 67 |
3.5 | Harpy tomb, west side | 67 |
3.6 | Parthenon frieze, North Ⅵ/6 | 68 |
3.7 | Nereid monument, frieze block 894 | 69 |
3.8 | Parthenon frieze, South ⅩⅥ | 69 |
3.9 | Parthenon frieze, North Ⅺ/11 | 70 |
3.10 | Parthenon frieze, North Ⅻ/12 | 70 |
3.11 | Parthenon frieze, North ⅩⅦ/23 | 71 |
3.12 | Parthenon frieze, North ⅩⅩⅣ/29 | 71 |
3.13 | Bassae frieze, British Museum 536 | 72 |
3.14 | Bassae frieze, British Museum 530 | 72 |
3.15 | Parthenon frieze, West Ⅵ, British Museum cast | 73 |
3.16 | Parthenon frieze, West ⅩⅤ and ⅩⅥ, British Museum casts | 74 |
3.17 | Parthenon frieze, West Ⅲ, British Museum cast | 74 |
3.18 | Parthenon frieze, West Ⅻ, British Museum cast | 75 |
3.19 | Parthenon frieze, West Ⅸ and Ⅹ, British Museum casts | 76 |
3.20 | Drawing of West Ⅻ over West Ⅲ | 77 |
3.21 | Drawing of West Ⅻ over North XLII/47 | 78 |
3.22 | Parthenon frieze, North XLI/46 | 79 |
3.23 | Parthenon frieze, North ⅩⅩⅫ/37 | 79 |
3.24 | Parthenon frieze, North ⅩⅩⅩⅤ/40 | 80 |
3.25 | Parthenon frieze, North ⅩⅩⅩⅧ/43 | 80 |
3.26 | Parthenon frieze, North XLI/46, detail | 81 |
4.1 | Zeus, Pandora? Aphrodite or Charis or Hora? Hermes; black-figure neck-amphora by the Diosphos Painter, c. 520 BC | 87 |
4.2 | Athena, “Anesidora,” Hephaestus; white-ground kylix by the Tarquinia Painter, 470–460 BC | 88 |
4.3 | Athena, Hephaestus, Pandora? Fragment of red-figure crocodile rhyton by the Sotades Painter, c. 460 BC, detail | 89 |
4.4 | Athena, Pandora, Ares; red-figure kalyx krater by the Niobid Painter, c. 460 BC, detail | 90 |
4.5 | Charites or Horai, Pandora, Athena, Hephaestus; base of Athena Parthenos from the library at Pergamon | 91 |
4.6 | Charis or Hora; base of Athena Parthenos from the library at Pergamon, detail | 92 |
4.7 | Kithara, female figure; late Hellenistic relief fragment | 93 |
4.8 | Epimetheus, Pandora; volute krater related to the Group of Polygnotus, c. 450 BC, side A, detail | 104 |
4.9 | Pandora; south Italian amphora, Owl Pillar Group, 450–425 BC, detail | 105 |
4.10 | Epimetheus; south Italian amphora, Owl Pillar Group, 450–425 BC, detail | 105 |
5.1 | Parthenon’s east pediment drawn by J. Carrey, 1674 | 115 |
5.2 | Parthenon’s east pediment, preserved figures | 115 |
5.3 | Parthenon’s east pediment drawn by J. Carrey, 1674 | 116 |
5.4 | Parthenon’s east pediment, preserved figures | 116 |
5.5 | Parthenon’s east frieze, central part | 117 |
5.6 | Parthenon’s east frieze, north group of gods restored by M. Korres | 119 |
5.7 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by J. Six, 1894 | 121 |
5.8 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by A. B. Cook, 1917 | 121 |
5.9 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by E. Berger, 1959 | 121 |
5.10 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by E. Berger, 1977 | 121 |
5.11 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by E. B. Harrison, 1967 | 122 |
5.12 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by G. Despinis, 1982 | 122 |
5.13 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by E. Simon, 1986 | 123 |
5.14 | Parthenon’s west pediment restored by K. Jeppesen, 1953 | 123 |
5.15 | Plan of the pedimental floor, geison blocks 10–18 | 124 |
5.16 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by I. Beyer, 1974 | 125 |
5.17 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by K. Jeppesen, 1984 | 125 |
5.18 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by W. W. Lloyd, 1861 | 126 |
5.19 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by A. Furtwängler, 1896 | 126 |
5.20 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by I. N. Svoronos, 1912 | 127 |
5.21 | Parthenon’s east pediment restored by K. Schwerzek, 1904 | 127 |
5.22 | Proposed reconstruction of the Parthenon’s east pediment | 128 |
5.23 | Document relief from Athens representing Athena, Erechtheus (?), and the olive tree, 410/409 BC | 129 |
5.24 | Votive relief from the Athenian Acropolis representing Athena and Nike crowning an athlete, c. 440–430 BC | 129 |
5.25 | Colossal left hand holding the shaft of a thunderbolt | 133 |
5.26 | Main fragment of the head Acropolis Museum 2381 | 135 |
5.27 | “Laborde head” | 137 |
6.1 | East 2, Dionysos fighting a giant | 151 |
6.2 | Parthenon, east facade, with casts of the metopes | 153 |
6.3 | Conjectural drawing of left male figure in South 27 | 155 |
6.4 | East 6, Poseidon crushing a giant with Nisyros, drawing of extant figures | 157 |
6.5 | East 6, Poseidon crushing a giant with Nisyros | 158 |
6.6 | View of Nisyros | 159 |
6.7 | Fourth century BC Attic funerary relief fragment | 160 |
6.8 | East 13, giant attacked by Hephaistos | 161 |
6.9 | East 13, giant attacked by Hephaistos, drawing of extant figures | 162 |
6.10 | East 13, proposed reconstruction drawing of giant attacked by Hephaistos | 163 |
7.1 | Parthenon in 1675, from Jacob Spon, Voyage d’Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce, et du Levant | 167 |
7.2 | Parthenon in 1687 by Gravier d’Ortières | 168 |
7.3 | Frontispiece from Jacob Spon, Recherches Curieuses d’ Antiquité | 169 |
7.4 | Illustration from Edward Dodwell, A Classical and Topographical Tour through Greece | 171 |
7.5 | View of Athens by an unknown Venetian artist, 1670 | 175 |
8.1 | Stable isotope database of major marble-producing ancient quarries in the eastern Mediterranean | 197 |
8.2 | Map plotting ancient quarries on south slope of Mount Pentelikon | 199 |
8.3 | Geologic map of ancient quarry region on south slope of Mount Pentelikon | 200 |
8.4 | Development of δ13C and δ18O stable isotope field for Pentelic marble distinguished by distinctive symbols | 201 |
8.5 | δ13C and δ18O scatterplot of all analyzed samples from ancient quarries on upper slope of Marble Unit 3 | 202 |
8.6 | Scatterplot distinguishing isotope fields within Pentelic quarry region | 203 |
8.7 | Scatterplot locating Parthenon sculptural marbles within Pentelic marble database | 204 |
Abbreviations of periodicals and series are those listed in the American Journal of Archaeology (www.ajaonline.org./shared/s_info_contrib_7.html). In the chapters, each author’s English spelling of Greek names is preserved, but in the index Greek instead of the Latinized versions of Greek names are used (e.g., Erechtheion instead of Erechtheum, Pentelikon instead of Pentelicum, etc.).
Dr. Michael B. Cosmopoulos is the Hellenic Government-Karakas Foundation Chair of Greek Studies and Professor of Archaeology, with the Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri–St. Louis. He is a classical archaeologist with extensive field experience. His most recent books include The Rural History of Ancient Greek City-States (BAR 1001, Oxford 2001) and The Archaeology and Ritual of Greek Secret Cults (edited, Routledge 2003).
Georgios Mostratos is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Athens.
Dr. Jenifer Neils is the Ruth Coulter Heede Professor of Art History and Classics at Case Western Reserve University. She has written extensively on Athenian iconography and the Panathenaic festival. Her most recent book, The Parthenon Frieze (Cambridge University Press 2001), examines all aspects of this major sculpture, from its initial design to its impact on later art.
Dr. Robert Picken is Professor Emeritus of French and Comparative Literature, The City University of New York. He is currently working on intellectual contacts between France and China at the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries.
Dr. Scott Pike is an Assistant Professor in the Environmental Sciences Program at Lynchburg College in Virginia. He is coeditor of The Practical Impact of Science on Near Eastern and Aegean Archaeology (Wiener Laboratory Publication Number 3, Archetype Publications Ltd. 2000).
Dr. Noel Robertson is Professor Emeritus of Classics at Brock University and the author of many studies of Greek history and religion, including The Formation of Greek Cities in the Light of Public Ritual (University of Toronto Press 1992).
Dr. Katherine A. Schwab is Associate Professor of Art History in the Department of Visual and Performing Arts and Curator of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Plaster Cast Collection at Fairfield University in Connecticut. Her essay on the entire metopes series, “Metopes: A Celebration of Victory,” will appear in The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present, ed. J. Neils (Cambridge University Press 2004).
William St. Clair is Senior Reseach Fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge, the author of Lord Elgin and the Marbles (3rd revised edition, 1998) and of The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period (Cambridge University Press 2004).
Dr. Sarantis Symeonoglou is Professor of Art History and Archaeology at Washington University in St. Louis. He is the director of the Ithaca Project and has authored The Topography of Thebes (Princeton University Press 1985).
Dr. John G. Younger is Professor of Classics and of Humanities and Western Civilization at the University of Kansas. He is currently working on two books for 2004–5: Sexuality in Classical Antiquity (Routledge) and A Social History of Greek Art (Blackwells).