Cambridge University Press

9780521513715 - THE ROMAN IMPERIAL MAUSOLEUM IN LATE ANTIQUITY - By Mark J. Johnson

Frontmatter/Prelims

THE ROMAN IMPERIAL MAUSOLEUM IN LATE ANTIQUITY

This book is the first comprehensive study of the mausolea of the later Roman emperors. Constructed between the years 244 and 450 and bridging the transition from paganism to Christianity within the empire, these important buildings shared a common design, that of the domed rotunda. Mark J. Johnson examines the symbolism and function of the mausolea, demonstrating for the first time that these monuments served as temples and shrines to the divinized emperors. Through an examination of literary sources and the archaeological record, he identifies which buildings were built as imperial tombs. Each building is examined to determine its place in the development of the type as well as for its unique features within the group. Recognizing the strong relationship between the mausolea built for pagan and Christian emperors, Johnson also analyzes their important differences.

Mark J. Johnson is professor of art history at Brigham Young University. A scholar of ancient and Early Christian and Byzantine architecture, he has published in Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Gesta, Byzantion, and Journal of Early Christian Studies, among other journals.

THE ROMAN IMPERIAL MAUSOLEUM IN LATE ANTIQUITY

Mark J. Johnson

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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First published 2009

Printed in the United States of America

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication dataJohnson, Mark Joseph.The Roman imperial mausolem in late antiquity / Mark J. Johnson. p.cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-521-51371-5 (hbk.)1. Mausoleums – Rome – History. 2. Rome – Antiquities. 3. Emperors – Tombs – Rome.4. Rome – Kings and rulers. 5. Burial – Rome – History. 6. Rome – Social life andcustoms. 7. Art, Roman. 8. Architecture, Roman. I. Title.DG272.J64 2009937′.06–dc22 2009005514

ISBN 978-0-521-51371-5 hardback

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List of Illustrations	vii
Preface	xiii
List of Abbreviations	xv
INTRODUCTION	1
CHAPTER ONE THE EMPEROR IN DEATH	8
CHAPTER TWO FROM TUMULUS TO DOMED ROTUNDA IN IMPERIAL MAUSOLEA	17
Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome	17
Templum Gentis Flaviae (Flavian Mausoleum), Rome	22
Column of Trajan, Rome	26
Mausoleum of Hadrian, Rome	30
Tomb of Gordian III, Zaitha	40
Mausoleum of Gallienus, Near Rome	42
The Imperial Mausoleum Transformed	48
CHAPTER THREE THE MATURE DOMED ROTUNDA – MAUSOLEA OF THE TETRARCHS	58
Mausoleum of Diocletian, Split	59
Mausoleum of Maximian (?) at San Vittore, Milan	70
Mausoleum of Galerius, Romuliana (Gamzigrad)	74
Mausoleum of the Mother of Maximin Daia (?), Šarkamen	82
Mausoleum of Maxentius, Rome	86
Tor de' Schiavi, Rome	93
Epilogue: Mausoleum of Julian, Tarsus	103
Site Selection for Late Roman Imperial Mausolea	104
Evolution of the Imperial Domed Rotunda Mausoleum	105
Space and Functions in Tetrarchic Imperial Mausolea	107
CHAPTER FOUR MAUSOLEA OF THE CHRISTIAN EMPERORS	110
Mausoleum of Helena, Rome	110
Mausoleum of Constantine (Apostoleion), Constantinople	119
Mausoleum of Constans (?), Centcelles	129
Mausoleum of Constantina, Rome	139
Sant'Aquilino, Milan	156
Mausoleum of Honorius (Santa Petronilla), Rome	167
Epilogue: Other Christian Imperial Tombs	174
Sacred Site and Mausoleum	174
Figurative Decoration in Christian Imperial Mausolea	176
Placement of Sarcophagi	177
CHAPTER FIVE SEPULCRA DIVORUM – SYMBOLISM AND CULT PRACTICES	180
CONCLUSION	195
APPENDIX A LIST OF IMPERIAL MAUSOLEA IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER AND BURIALS CONTAINED THEREIN	199
APPENDIX B “UBI SEPULTI SUNT”: THE BURIAL PLACES OF ROMAN EMPERORS AND MEMBERS OF THEIR FAMILIES FROM CARACALLA (217) TO ANASTASIUS (518)	203
Notes	219
Select Bibliography	255
Index	293

List of Illustrations

(Note: All photographs and drawings are by the author unless specified otherwise.)

Color Plates

I. Rome, Mausoleum of Augustus, exterior from south	18
II. Rome, Column of Trajan, view from southeast	26
III. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, exterior from southwest	31
IV. Rome, Mausoleum of Gallienus, exterior from east	42
V. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, exterior from northeast	59
VI. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), Mausoleum I (of Romula), view of remains	78
VII. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), Mausoleum II (of Galerius), view of remains	80
VIII. Šarkamen, Mausoleum of the mother of Maximin Daia (?), view of remains	83
IX. Rome, Mausoleum of Maxentius, exterior from south	86
X. Rome, Tor de' Schiavi, exterior from southeast	93
XI. Rome, Mausoleum of Helena, exterior from northeast	111
XII. Sarcophagus of Helena, front, Vatican Museums	116
XIII. Centcelles, Mausoleum of Constans, exterior from southwest	130
XIV. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, exterior from northwest	140
XV. Mausoleum of Constantina, interior	146
XVI. Milan, Sant'Aquilino, exterior from southeast	157

Color plates follow page xvi

Figures

1. Map of the Roman Empire	3
2. Map of Italy	4
3. Map of the Roman Campagna	5
4. Map of Rome	6
5. Milan, plan of the Late Antique city	7
6. Consecration coin of Antoninus Pius, showing pyre, ca. AD 161	13
7. Rome, Mausoleum of Augustus, plan	19
8. Rome, Mausoleum of Augustus, possible exterior reconstructions	21
9. Rome, area of Quirinal in which Templum Gentis Flaviae was located, plan according to Lanciani	23
10. Rome, Tomb and Forum of Trajan, site plan	27
11. Rome, Tomb of Trajan, plan	29
12. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, ground level, plan, partially reconstructed	32
13. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, plan, crypt level	33
14. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, restored section, in part hypothetical	34
15. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, crypt, interior	35
16. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, plan at level of the Sala di Giustizia and Cortile, in part hypothetical	36
17. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, plan at level of the Sala del Tesoro, in part hypothetical	37
18. Rome, Mausoleum of Hadrian, exterior reconstruction, in part hypothetical	39
19. Rome, Mausoleum of Gallienus, plans	43
20. Rome, Mausoleum of Gallienus, exterior from south	44
21. Rome, Mausoleum of Gallienus, interior niche	45
22. Rome, Mausoleum of Gallienus, ambulatory remnants	46
23. Rome, Mausoleum of Gallienus, remnant of arch supporting porch floor	47
24. Rome, Mausoleum of Gallienus, seventeenth-century reconstruction by Pier Sante Bartoli	48
25. Naples, Scudillo, Tomb, plan	49
26. Rome, so-called “Tomb of Claudius Libertus,” plan and section	50
27. Alife, Tomb of the Acilii Glabriones, exterior from southeast	51
28. Alife, Tomb of the Acilii Glabriones, plan	51
29. Rome, Mausoleum known as the “Monte del Grano,” general view from south	52
30. Rome, Mausoleum known as the “Monte del Grano,” plan	53
31. Rome, Mausoleum known as the “Monte del Grano,” section	53
32. Cirella, Mausoleum, exterior from south	54
33. Cirella, Mausoleum, plan	54
34. Porto, Mausoleum known as the “Tempio di Portuno,” view from south	55
35. Porto, Mausoleum known as the “Tempio di Portuno,” plans	55
36. Split, Palace of Diocletian, plan	60
37. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, plan	61
38. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, crypt, plan	62
39. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, exterior, cornice	63
40. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, reconstruction by Niemann	63
41. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, reconstruction by Hébrard and Zeiller	64
42. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, reconstruction by Stratimirović	65
43. Spilt, Mausoleum of Diocletian, interior, engraving of ca. 1782 by Cassas	65
44. Spilt, Mausoleum of Diocletian, interior, north elevation	66
45. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, section	67
46. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, sculpted frieze, portrait of Prisca (?)	69
47. Split, Mausoleum of Diocletian, sculpted frieze, portrait of Diocletian	69
48. Milan, Mausoleum of Maximian (?) and “Fortress” at San Vittore, plan	71
49. Milan, Mausoleum at San Vittore, plan	72
50. Milan, Mausoleum at San Vittore, exterior ca. 1570, drawing by an anonymous Dutch artist	73
51. Thessaloniki, Rotunda (St. George), general view from south	75
52. Thessaloniki, Palace Octagon, plan	76
53. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), site plan	77
54. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), Magura Hill, reconstructed general view	78
55. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), Mausoleum I, plans	78
56. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), Mausoleum I, restored elevation	79
57. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), Mausoleum II, plans	80
58. Romuliana (Gamzigrad), Mausoleum II, restored elevation	81
59. Šarkamen, Mausoleum, site plan	83
60. Šarkamen, Mausoleum, plan	84
61. Šarkamen, Mausoleum, section	85
62. Villa of Maxentius, plan	87
63. Rome, Mausoleum of Maxentius, plan of crypt level and temenos	88
64. Rome, Mausoleum of Maxentius, exterior from northeast	88
65. Rome, Mausoleum of Maxentius, section	89
66. Rome, Mausoleum of Maxentius, crypt, interior	90
67. Rome, Mausoleum of Maxentius, reconstruction by Rasch	91
68. Rome, Mausoleum of Maxentius, conjectural plan of upper level	91
69. Consecratio coins with representations of domed rotundas	93
70. Rome, Tor de' Schiavi and basilica, general view from east	94
71. Rome, Tor de' Schiavi, crypt, and basilica, plan	95
72. Rome, Tor de' Schiavi, plan of cella	96
73. Rome, Tor de' Schiavi, exterior from northwest	96
74. Rome, Tor de' Schiavi, ca. 1744, engraving by de Ficoroni	97
75. Rome, Tor de' Schiavi, exterior reconstruction by Rasch	98
76. Tor de' Schiavi, section	99
77. Tor de' Schiavi, cella, interior	99
78. Tor de' Schiavi, section, sixteenth-century drawing by Sallustio Peruzzi, Uffizi, Arch. 668	100
79. Tor de' Schiavi, interior, dome, seventeenth-century engraving by Pier Sante Bartoli	101
80. Rome, Pantheon, exterior from northwest	106
81. Rome, Cemetery at SS. Petrus and Marcellinus, Tomb XII, plan	107
82. Rome, complex of SS. Marcellinus and Petrus, plan	111
83. Rome, Mausoleum of Helena, plan	113
84. Rome, Mausoleum of Helena, exterior from southwest	114
85. Rome, Mausoleum of Helena, exterior, sixteenth-century engraving by Bosio	115
86. Rome, Mausoleum of Helena, section	115
87. Constantinople, plan of Constantinian city	119
88. Constantinople, Mausoleum of Constantine-Apostoleion, conjectural schematic plan, as in 337	125
89. Constantinople, Apostoleion, conjectural schematic plan, as in ca. 370	126
90. Constantinople, Apostoleion, conjectural schematic plan, as in ca. 405	127
91. Constantinople, Apostoleion, conjectural schematic plan, as in ca. 560	127
92. Porphyry Sarcophagus from the Apostoleion, Archaeological Museum, Istanbul	129
93. Centcelles, Mausoleum and villa, plan	130
94. Centcelles, Mausoleum, section	131
95. Centcelles, Mausoleum, view of dome mosaics	132
96. Centcelles, Mausoleum, interior, dome, diagram of mosaic program	133
97. Centcelles, Mausoleum, dome mosaic, zone C, ceremonial scenes, line drawing of remnants	135
98. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina and Basilica of St. Agnes, plan	140
99. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, exterior from northeast	141
100. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, vestibule area, plan with excavated remains of triconch building	143
101. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, plan	145
102. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, exterior, drum, north section, detail of masonry	146
103. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, interior, ambulatory vault with openings	147
104. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, interior of “tower” in front of main niche	147
105. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, section	148
106. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, interior, main niche, vault with mosaic remnants	149
107. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, interior, ambulatory vault mosaic, portrait of Constantina	150
108. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, interior elevation, ca. 1500, Codex Escurialensis, 28-II-12, fol. 7r	151
109. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, section, sixteenth-century drawing by the Anonymous Destailleur, Berlin, Kunstbibliothek, 4151, fol. 73r	151
110. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, interior, dome, schematic reconstruction of mosaic program	152
111. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, dome mosaics, detail, watercolor by Francesco de Hollanda, Codex Escurialensis, 28-I-20, fol. 27v	152
112. Rome, Sarcophagus of Constantina, front	153
113. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, exterior reconstruction by Rasch	154
114. Rome, Mausoleum of Constantina, exterior, slit windows	155
115. Milan, San Lorenzo complex, general view from southeast	157
116. Milan, San Lorenzo complex, plan	158
117. Milan, Sant'Aquilino, plan	159
118. Milan, Sant'Aquilino, exterior from west	160
119. Milan, Sant'Aquilino, interior	161
120. Milan, Sant'Aquilino, section	162
121. Milan, Sant'Aquilino, interior, portal between vestibule and octagon	163
122. Milan, Sant'Aquilino, vault mosaic, drawing of ca. 1652, attributed to Ralph Symonds, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson d. 121, fol. 187	165
123. Rome, Vatican Rotunda, Mausoleum of Honorius and Old St. Peter's, plan, (Anonymous Florentine plan superimposed on plan of the two basilicas), in part conjectural	168
124. Rome, Vatican Rotunda and Mausoleum of Honorius, plan as in ca. 1514, by an Anonymous Florentine artist, Uffizi Arch. 4336	169
125. Rome, Vatican, woodcut of ca. 1493, from Schedel, Buch der Chroniken, Blat 58	170
126. Rome, Mausoleum of Honorius, section, conjectural reconstruction	171
127. Vases from the sarcophagus of Maria, sixteenth-century drawing, Vat. Lat. 3439, f. 174	175
128. Rome, Tomb known as the “Berretta del Prete,” interior, niche	178

THE ROMAN IMPERIAL MAUSOLEUM IN LATE ANTIQUITY

THE ROMAN IMPERIAL MAUSOLEUM IN LATE ANTIQUITY

Mark J. Johnson

Contents

List of Illustrations

Color Plates

Figures