Abbaye de Royaument, France, 254
Abbott Laboratories, 319
Abel, John Jacob, 110, 149, 285
Abernethy, John, 14, 19, 51
abortion laws
in France, 332
in Soviet Union, 361
Académie des Sciences, 65, 120–5
Academy of Surgeons, France, 38
accidents
in Bhopal, 437
industrial, 437
‘achromatic’ microscopes, 69
in Great Britain, 74
Ackerknecht, Erwin H., 53, 58, 65, 143
on ‘Paris’ medicine, 53–4
Action for Victims for Medical Accidents, 458
‘active bodies,’ 68
Addison, Thomas, 103, 283
Addison’s disease, 103, 285
advertising
for French medical practices, 18
Afghanistan, 522
Africa. See also Egypt; Ethiopia; Somalia; South Africa; Tanzania
cholera in, 128
HIV/AIDS in, 434, 530
maternal mortality rates in, 527
African-Americans
in Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 310
in U.S. hospitals, 350–1
in U.S. medical schools, 301
aging
life expectancies, selected nations (1890–1970), 501
AIDS. See HIV/AIDS
Aitken, Sir William, 232
Akenside, Mark, 55
Albert, Prince, 209
alcohol, 340–3
breath tests for, 467
alcoholism, 198
Alder Hey Hospital, 459
ALF (Animal Liberation Front), 412
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, 419
Algiers
Florey, Howard G., in, 385
alienists. See psychiatrists
Alison, William Pulteney, 60, 91
All India Institute of Medical Sciences, 519
Allbutt, Thomas Clifford, 105, 169, 170, 172
Allen & Hanbury, 291
Allen, John, 14
Allgemeine Anatomie (Henle), 71
Allgemeinen Krakenhaus, Vienna, 156
Alma Ata, 286, 454, 521
Primary Health Care at, 486
Alter, Harvey, 415
Alzheimer’s disease, 109, 476
AMA (American Medical Association), 215, 292, 299, 304
formation of, 211
national insurance and, 220
‘Ten Principles’ of, 325
ambulance volante, 40
American College of Physicians, 272
American College of Surgeons, 272
American Federation for Sex Hygiene, 341
American Food and Drug Agency, 496
contraception pills and, 505
American Medical Association. See AMA
American Medicine, 310
American Psychiatric Association, 273
American Social Hygiene Association, 341
American Society for the Control of Cancer, 269
American Vigilance Association, 341
amputations, 20, 23, 155
anaemia, 170
chlorosis as form of, 170
pernicious, 170, 242, 281–3
anaesthesia
chlorpromazine and, 473
cocaine as, 156
ether as, 23
Liston, Robert, and, 24
mesmerism and, 23
nitrous oxide as, 156
nurses, 279
in surgery, 155–6, 295
UCH experiments with, 23
anatomy
pathology of, 37
animal experiments, 412
ALF and, 412
Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act (1986), 400, 412
Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), 105, 412
NIH and, 412
PETA and, 412
Animal Liberation (Singer), 412
Animal Liberation Front. See ALF
animal magnetism. See mesmerism
Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act (1986), 412
anorexia nervosa, 427
antenatal care, 331
anthrax, 105, 132
antibiotics
bacteria resistant strains to, 444, 472
penicillin, 287, 410, 470–2
streptomycin, 414, 471
sulphonamides, 318, 471
vancomycin, 472
antibodies, 134
antigens and, 134
for blood groups, 315
for syphilis, 183
Antidepressants, 473–6
antigens
antibodies and, 134
antihistamines, 287, 473
anti-Semitism
in Germany, 133, 184, 203, 297
antisepsis
carbolic acid as part of, 157
surgery system, 157, 158
apothecaries, 30–1
apprenticeships, 136–7
Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin (Virchow), 121, 123
Army School of Nursing, 279
Arnott, Neil, 90
Aschoff, Ludwig, 259, 311
asepsis, 159
Asia. See also Afghanistan; Balkans; Bangladesh; China; India; Japan; North Yemen; Soviet Union
cholera epidemics in, 129, 225
internationalism and, 228
WHO in, 518
aspirin, 108, 286
Association of American Medical Colleges, 107, 462
Association of German Doctors for the Protection of Their Economic Interests, 219
asthma, 166, 176
asylums, mental. See also hospitals, psychiatric
Bicêtre, 198
heredity as factor in, 199–200
population increases in, 199–200, 352
Salpêtrière, 198
York Retreat, 198
atom bombs, 245, 437
Attention deficit disorder, 513
Auenbrugger, Leopold, 166
auscultation, 42, 45, 55, 73, 166
in French medical schools, 174
Laennec, René-Théophile, and, 42
Australia
Australian National University, 421
John Curtin School, 421
Australian National University, 421
Austria
social welfare in, 324
autism, 513
MMR vaccine and, 533
autopsies, 61–2
protocols for, 120
azathioprine
for post-transplant surgery, 395, 489, 490
Babbage, Charles, 26, 90, 167
Bacille Calmette Guérin. See BCG
bacteria
‘bacteria-tracking,’ 315
bacteriology, 123–32
after WWII, 123
holism and, 310
infectious diseases and, 123
U.S. public healthcare and, influence on, 196
Baillie, Matthew, 35
Bainbridge, William, 187
Balkans, 365
Balzac, Honoré de, 26
Bangladesh, 520–30
water resources in, 524
World Bank and, 518
Banting, Frederick, 242, 284
Barcelona
yellow fever in, 193
Barcroft, Joseph, 260
Barger, George, 285
Barnard, Christiaan, 396, 489
Bartlett, Elisha, 52, 112
on medical science, 112
Bashford, Alison, 96
Battle of Solferino, 226
Baudrillard, Jean, 97, 98
Bayer and Company, 320, 485
Bayle, Gaspard-Laurent, 41, 42
BBC (British Broadcasting Company), 533
BCG (Bacille Calmette Guérin), 242, 338.
See also tuberculosis
in Yugoslavia, 366
Beard, George, 200
Becquerel, Henri, 174
Bedford, Evan, 283
‘Bedside’ medicine, 54, 56–8, 73
conditions of, 58
Beecher, Henry K., 293, 416
Belgium
famine in, 264
syphilis in, 342
Bell, Charles, 7, 21, 66, 79, 81
Bell’s Palsy, 8, 468
Bennett, John Hughes, 74, 75, 77, 113, 121, 170
Bentham, Jeremy, 86, 188
Berlin
Physiological Society, 128
public utilities in, 195
University, 70, 141
Berlin Physiological Society, 128
Berliner medicinische Gesellschaft, 215
Bern, 159
Bernard, Claude, 47, 53, 65, 66, 116, 136, 143
career of, 116–18
on experimental medicine, 120, 123
sugar metabolism research by, 116, 118
Berson, Sol, 467
Bert, Paul, 143
Besredka, Alexandre, 314
Best, Charles, 242, 284
beta-blockers, 470
Bevan, Anuerin, 498
Beveridge Report, 245, 497
Beveridge, William, 389, 497
Bhopal
industrial accident at, 400, 437
Bicêtre asylum (for men), 198
Bichat, Xavier, 7, 24, 41, 47, 66, 69
Bigelow, Jacob, 210
Bildung (personal development), 69
bilharzia. See schistosomiasis
Billings, John Shaw, 226
Billroth, Theodor, 142, 159
biochemistry, 271
disease identification through, 284
endocrinology and, 284
immunology and, 135
metabolism and, 284
biology
cell, 410
molecular, 413–14
biometrics, 315
Birmingam
as industrial centre, 15
birth control. See contraception
birth rates
in Europe (1914–1945), 263, 332
in Germany (1914–1945), 333–4
per population, OECD nations (1800–2000), 504
The Birth of the Clinic (Foucault), 58, 81, 82, 84
background for, 85
Bismarck, ‘Iron Chancellor,’ 140, 218
Black, Sir James, 398, 401, 481, 494
Blackwell, Elizabeth, 10, 147
Blalock, Alfred, 245, 307
blastemas, 185.
See also cancer
Bleuler, Eugen, 203
blood, 494
American Association of Blood Banks, 495
anaemia and, 170
antibodies in, 315
Chagas Disease and, 497
circulation of, discovery, 34
groups, identification of, 134–5
haemophilia, 495
HIV/AIDS and, 496, 497
‘paid,’ 496
pathology, 468
products, 496
transfusions, 293, 494–7
blood pressure
drugs for, 481
blood transfusions, 293, 494–7
disease transmission through, 495–6
post WWII, 388
Blumberg, Baruch, 398, 415
BMA (British Medical Association), 220, 254, 389
media for, 531
Seven Principles for, 325
Boards of Guardians, 89
Boards of Health, 94, 191
Boas, Franz, 331
Boer War, 256
Bois-Reymond, Emil Du, 9, 114
Bolsheviks, 355, 357
Bonica, John J., 444
Boston Women’s Health Collective, 458
Botkin Hospital, Moscow, 363
Bouillaud, Jean-Baptiste, 47
bovine spongiform encephalopathy. See BSE
Bowman, William, 169
Boyce, Sir Rubert, 236, 249
Boyd, Stanley, 160
brain
chemistry, 475–7
dopamines in, 475
serotonins in, 475
Brazil
medical schools in, 370
breast feeding
decline and promotion of, 507–8
breast milk substitutes, 516
breathalyser, 396, 467
Breslau
Physiology Institute in, 68
University, 68
Breuer, Josef, 202
Bright, Richard, 171
Bright’s disease, 8, 171, 283–4
Bristol, 146
British Association for the Advancement of Science, 90
British Broadcasting Company. See BBC
British Drug Houses, 291
British Empire Cancer Campaign, 305
British Medical Association. See BMA
British Medical Journal, 381
British War Office, 254
The British Institute for Preventive Medicine, 164
Broca, Paul, 47, 73, 100
Brodie, Benjamin, 51
brothels, 181.
See also prostitution
Broudardel, M., 225
Broussais François-Joseph-Victor, 45
Brown, John, 201
Brown, Louise, 399, 506
Brown-Séquard, Charles, 143
Bruce, Sir David, 258
Brücke, Ernst, 114, 115
BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), 224, 400, 401, 435
Buchanan, Joseph Rhodes, 214
Bumm, Ernst, 294
Bunsen, Robert, 141
Bunyan, John, 179
Burdon-Sanderson, John Scott, 119
Burnet, Macfarlane, 394, 421
Burroughs Wellcome & Company, 480, 488
Bushnell General Hospital, Utah, 384
Cabanis, Pierre Jean Georges, 52
‘Paris’ medicine and, 52
Cabot, Richard, 173, 279
cadavers, medical, 26–7.
See also autopsies
Hôtel-Dieu, Paris, and, 26
Cade, John, 475
Cadiz
yellow fever in, 193
caesarian section, 273.
See also childbirth
Cairns, Hugh, 385
Caius, John, 36, 37
Calmette, Leon, 224, 242, 338
Calne, Sir Roy, 489
Cambridge University, 20, 113
Canada
hospitals in, 379, 422, 445
immigration restrictions in, 329
medical schools in, 422
MRC in, 422
cancer, 184–8
basic science research for, 316
‘benign’ v. ‘malignant,’ 187
blastemas and, 185
carcinomas, 122
cell biology for, 186
chronic irritation as factor for, 187
death rates for, 432
‘houses’ for, 187
Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 188
International Association for Cancer Research, 188
Kaposi’s sarcoma, 468
lung, 428–30
mortality rates (19th cent.), 184–5
public attention towards, 431–2
radium treatments for, 269, 287
research foundations for, 187, 188
sarcomas, 122
specialized hospitals for, 185
stress as factor for, 186–7
surgery for (19th cent.), 188
theories of, 186–8
tuberculosis and, 187
virus for, 410–12
cancer foundations. See foundations, cancer
cancer ‘houses,’ 187
Cannon, Walter Bradford, 117, 173, 260, 268, 373
homeostasis principle research by, 117
‘Captain Swing’ riots, 88
carbolic acid
as surgical disinfectant, 157–8
carbon monoxide, 117, 118
carcinomas. See also cancer
epilethial cells and, 185
Cardiac Club, 262
cardiology, 283
ECGs use in, 283
cardiovascular disease. See diseases, heart
Carlyle, Thomas, 17
on Chartism, 17
Carnegie Foundation, 272
Carrel, Alexis, 110, 165, 228, 241, 256
Carry on Doctor, 532
Carson, Rachel, 457, 472
Carswell, Sir Robert, 77
Carter, Robert Brudenell, 170
‘cash nexus,’ 17
Casualty Clearing Stations. See CCS
CAT (computerized axial tomography), 398, 399, 469, 493
CCS (Casualty Clearing Stations), 255, 256, 383
cell biology, 410
cellular pathology, 121, 165
Virchow, Rudolf, on, 185
Cellular Pathology (Virchow), 122
cemeteries, 82
Central Sanitary Commission, 194
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. See CNRS
Chadwick, Edwin, 9, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94–6, 190, 191
career of, 190
as miasmatist, 190
public healthcare movement and, 188
Chagas Disease, 497
Chain, Sir Ernst, 244, 245, 384, 471
Chamberlain, Joseph, 238, 252–63
Chapin, Charles, 196
Charcot, Jean-Martin, 105, 144, 202, 226
Charing Cross Hospital, 160, 265
charitable hospitals, 151
Charité Hospital, Berlin, 274
charities
mutual aid societies, 217
Société philanthropique de Paris, 217
charity, 216–17
medical fees and, 216–17
Chartism, 17
‘cash nexus’ and, 17
sanitarianism and, 87
Wakley, Thomas, and, 99
CHD (coronary heart disease), 430.
See also diseases, heart
Coronary Heart Disease Statistics, 431
mortality rates for (1986–1996), 430, 431
obesity as factor for, 431
chemotherapy, 135
Salvarsan as part of, 135
Chernobyl, 400, 437, 516
Cheyne, William Watson, 159
Cheyne-Stokes respiration, 284
Chiarugi, Vincenzo, 198
chickenpox, 132
childbirth
antenatal care and, 331
by caesarian section, 273
chloroform during, 209
death during, 209
La Leche International and, 508
midwifery and, 209, 331, 452
natural, 451
neonatology and, 510
programs, in Soviet Union, 361–2
women and, 209
children, 507–14
Attention deficit disorder in, 513
autism in, 513
diabetes in, 514
guidance clinics for, 513
immunization programs for, 510
mortality rates for, 388, 507
obesity among, 514
psychiatry, 513
psychoanalysis for, 286
Children’s Vaccine Initiative, 516
China
medical education in, 461–2
medical schools in, 373, 461–2
pharmaceutical industry in, 483
PMC in, 373
Rockefeller Foundation in, 373, 461
tobacco use in, 528, 529
chiropractic, 214
chloroform, 156.
See also anaesthesia
during childbirth, 209
chlorosis, 170.
See also anaemia
chlorpromazine, 473, 474, 484
anaesthesia and, 473
in Great Britain, 393, 473
in U.S., 393, 473
cholera, 8, 9, 10, 16–17, 94, 104, 106, 108, 189
in Africa, 128
in Asia, 129, 225
chicken, 132
in Germany, 195
in Great Britain, 16, 94, 189, 191, 192
internationalism and, 222–3
Koch, Robert, and, 128, 224, 225
in North America, 16, 17
quarantines for, 129, 222
throughout 19th cent., 222
transmission of, 87
as water-borne disease, 129
chromatography, 409–10
Ciba, 481, 485
cities
medical interventions in, 84
CJD (Creutzfeld Jacob Disease), 401, 402, 436
transplant surgery and, 492, 497
variant, 402, 436
Clinical Examination of the Blood (Cabot), 173
clinical research. See research, clinical
‘clinical schools,’ 138
teaching at, 145
clinical trials
for lithium, 475
for streptomycin, 414
clinics
diabetic, 271
psychiatric, 286
for STDs (Great Britain), 236, 249
CMR (Committee on Medical Research), 384
CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), 419
cocaine, 156
Cohn, Ferdinand, 126
Cohnheim, Julius, 123, 141, 186
Cole, Rufus, 287, 307, 313
Collegé de France, 46
Collip, James B., 284
Comité de mendicité, 40
Commission on Training Camp Activities. See CTCA
Committee on Medical Research. See CMR
Communist Manifesto (Marx), 10, 97
Company of Surgeons, Great Britain, 30, 37
compound microscopes, 69
computerized axial
tomography. See CAT
Comroe, Julius, 416
Comte, Auguste, 143
The Condition of the Working Class in England (Engels), 25
Confedération des Syndicats Médicaux, 325
Conolly, John, 199
Conseil de salubrité de Paris, 194
‘consumption.’ See tuberculosis
Contagious Diseases Acts, 182–3, 191
in India, 182–3, 191
Conti, Leonardo, 376
contraception. See also ‘the pill’
eugenics and, 333
in Nazi Germany, 376
Sanger, Margaret, and, 241, 333, 503–5
‘the pill,’ 505–6, 515
controlled trials, 291, 475
Cook County Hospital, Chicago, 293
Cori, Carl, 391, 409
Cori cycle, 409
Cori, Gerty, 391, 409
coronary heart disease. See CHD
Coronary Heart Disease Statistics, 431
corporations, medical, 5
Corvisart, Jean-Nicholas, 42, 166
Council of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, 21
Council on Medical Education, 299, 304
cowpox
vaccine for, 132
Coxsackie B virus, 468
Crick, Francis, 395, 413
Crimean War, 152, 232
croup. See whooping cough
Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), 412
Cruikshank, George, 22
C-section. See caesarian section
CTCA (Commission on Training Camp Activities), 265
Cumberland, Charles, 194
Curie, Marie, 108, 174
radiation discovery by, 174
Curie, Pierre, 108, 174
radiation discovery by, 174
Curtin, Philip, 233
Cushing, Harvey, 110, 257, 285, 307
Cushing’s disease, 285
Cuvier, Georges, 51
cyclosporine
for post-transplant surgery, 399, 470, 490
Dakin, Sir Henry, 256
Dale, Sir Henry, 241, 243, 244, 291, 308
Dameshek, William, 488
Dangerous Drugs Act (1951), 479
Danish Medical Association, 271
Darwin, Charles, 9, 119
evolution and, 104, 105, 204
Dawson, Lord, 348
DDT, 472
malaria and, 472
typhus and, 472
death. See also mortality
attitudes towards, 61
brain, 396, 492, 533
by ‘social diseases,’ 92
Declaration of Helsinki (1964), 416
Delay, Jean, 473
dementia praecox. See schizophrenia
Deniker, Pierre, 473
Denmark
sterilization in, 330
tuberculosis management in, 340
VD in, 342
dentistry
X-rays for, 173
deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA
depression, mental, 88, 427.
See also melancholia
Dermatological Research Laboratories. See DRL
Desmond, Adrian, 57
developing nations
Bangladesh, 518, 520–30
diarrhoeal disease in, 516, 524, 525
Ethiopia, 519
female genital mutilation in, 527
HIV/AIDS, 522–3
infectious disease control within, 521
life expectancy rates in, 524–5
medicine in, 519–30
NGOs in, 519, 530
North Yemen, 524
population growth programs in, 525–6
Somalia, 520
Tanzania, 520
therapeutic drug supplies in, 529
tobacco products in, 528
tuberculosis in, 522
UNFPA in, 515, 526
WHO in, 520
diabetes, 105
Cheyne-Stokes respiration with, 284
in children, 514
clinics for, 271
insulin introduction and, 276–7
‘late onset,’ 514
management of, 284
Type 1, 514
Type 2, 514
diagnosis, medical, 464–70
bacteriological laboratories and, 172–3
computerized tomography for, 469
for disease, 166–75
DNA ‘fingerprinting’ and, 468
manuals for, 167
MRI for, 469
PCR and, 468
radioimmunoassay tests, 467
X-rays use in, 173–5, 469
Dick, George, 313
Dick, Gladys, 313
‘Dick test’
for scarlet fever, 313
Dickens, Charles, 22, 161, 427
Die Cellularpathologie, 76
diphtheria, 8, 130, 134, 173
immunization programs for, Germany, 338
immunization programs for, Great Britain, 338
immunization programs for, U.S., 338
mortality rates, Great Britain (1841–1970), 511
mortality rates, U.S. (1900–1970), 512
diseases, 123.
See also diseases, heart; diseases, infectious; diseases, mental; diseases, new; HIV/AIDS; influenza; smallpox; STDs; tuberculosis; VD
Addison’s disease, 285
Alzheimer’s, 476
asthma, 166, 176, 455
through blood transfusions, 495–6
Bright’s disease, 8, 171, 283–4
BSE, 224, 400, 407
Chagas Disease, 497
chickenpox, 132
chlorosis, 170
cholera, 16, 87, 222
CJD, 401, 402, 436, 492, 497
climate as factor for, 233–9
compulsory notification of, 196
‘cosmopolitan,’ 235
cowpox, 132
Cushing’s disease, 285
diagnosis of, 166–5
dichotomy of,
diphtheria, 106, 107, 130, 134, 173
Ebola fever, 427
encephalitis lethargica, 238, 250
epidemics of, 16–17, 129
epilepsy, 176
erysipelas, 131, 173
fever as, 172
gout, 176
heart, 256, 430
HIV/AIDS, 123, 224, 412, 433–5
during Industrial Revolution, 16
infectious, clinical research for, 312–16
influenza, 16, 90, 237, 249–50
kidney, 171
Lassa fever, 427
Legionnaires Disease, 433
malaria, 228, 238
measles, 432
mental, 197–203
new, 281–6
non-infectious, clinical research for, 305–12
‘of affluence,’ 428
Parkinson’s Disease, 476
pneumonia, 312
poliomyelitis, 237, 250
poverty as factor for, 89–97
prevention of, 188–97, 258, 336–40
in Prussia, outbreaks, 92–3
public control of, in Great Britain, 192
public health and, influence on, 236, 248–50
pulmonary pthisis, 175–8
sanitarianism and, 87
SARS, 436–7, 492
scarlet fever, 16, 173, 312, 313
scrofula, 175, 176
small pox, 87
‘social,’ 92
STDs, 184
syphilis, 135, 179–84, 187
tuberculosis, 17, 175, 313, 432
typhoid fever, 87, 90, 131, 172, 173, 313
typhus, 16, 87
VD, 236, 249
venereal, 236, 249
water-borne, 129
whooping cough, 173
yellow fever, 222, 228
diseases, heart. See also ‘soldier’s heart’
Cardiac Club and, 262
CHD, 430
ECG development for, 261
mitral valvotomy for, 256
diseases, infectious
‘bacteria-tracking’ for, 315
chickenpox, 132
clinical research for, 312–16
in developing nations, 521
‘Dick test’ for, 313, 315
Ebola fever, 427
influenza, 16, 90, 237, 249–50
Lassa fever, 427
measles, 432
pneumonia, 312
scarlet fever, 16, 173, 312, 313
‘Schick test’ for, 315
‘test tube’ models for, 314
tuberculosis, 17, 175, 313, 432
typhoid fever, 87, 90, 131, 172, 173, 313
typhus, 16, 87
typing for, 313
yellow fever, 222, 228
diseases, mental, 197–203
chlorpromazine for, 473
drugs for, 472–5
hysteria, 166, 201–2
lithium for, 475
melancholia, 166
neurasthenia, 200–2
psychiatry and, 197
schizophrenia, 203, 243, 286, 289, 312, 379, 513
diseases, new (post WWI), 281–6, 433–8.
See also HIV/AIDS
BSE, 224, 435
CJD, 401, 402, 436, 492, 497
HIV/AIDS, 123, 224, 412, 433–5
Legionnaires Disease, 433
renal, 283–4
SARS, 436–7
‘diseases of affluence,’ 428
diseases, tropical 231–9
malaria, 228, 238, 407
disinfection. See antisepsis; sepsis
Distillers Company, 478
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 392, 393, 395, 413
‘fingerprinting,’ 468
‘doctor-patient’ relationships. See relationships, ‘doctor-patient’
doctors
in ‘doctor-patient’ relationships, 3, 19, 203–11, 456
population demographics for, 460
social status of, in France, 14
social status of, in Great Britain, 29–30
in Soviet Union, 359
workmen’s compensation and, 230–1
The Doctor’s Dilemma (Shaw), 133
Doll, Sir Richard, 414, 428, 432
Dolland, John, 70
Domagk, Gerhard, 243, 244, 320, 321
Donné, Alfred, 72, 138
donor
in blood transfusion, 293, 495, 497
in transplant surgery, 443, 488, 489, 490, 492
dopamines, 475
Parkinson’s Disease and, 476
DOTS (directly observed treatment with short course antibiotics), 522
in Peru,
‘Douglas bag,’ 274
Douglas, C.G., 260
Dr. Finley’s Casebook, 531
Dr. Kildare, 531
Draper, George, 311
Dripps, Robert, 416
DRL (Dermatological Research Laboratories), 319
Drug Abuse Council, 397, 476
drug companies
Abbott Laboratories, 319
Allen & Hanbury, 291
Bayer and Company, 320, 485
biomedical research subsidies by (c. 1945), 320
Boehringer,
British Drug Houses, 291
Burroughs Wellcome & Company, 291, 480, 488
Ciba, 481, 485
Distillers Company, 478
DRL, 319
Eli Lilly, 282, 319
ER Squibb, 319
Geigy Company, 474
Glaxo Wellcome, 481, 485
IG Farben, 321
Imperial Chemical Industries, 481
May and Baker, 322
Merck and Company, 319
Pharmacia, 481
Sandoz, 481
S. E. Massengill, 293
Smith, Kline and French, 481
Smith Kline Beecham, 481, 485
Upjohn, 481
drug prescriptions
demographics, Great Britain (1952–1975), 485
under NHS, 484, 485
in OECD nations, 486
drugs, new. See also drugs, psychoactive; drugs, psychotropic
abuse of, 476, 477
for blood pressure, 481
chlorpromazine, 473, 474, 484
control, in U.S., 292–3
controlled trials for, 291
development of (1965–2000), 483–5
‘essential,’ 486
‘ethical,’ 481
for fertility, 506
GPs and, 455–6
for mental illness, 472–5
MRC control over, 292
neuromuscular blocking, 481
psychotropics, 442
safety of, 479–80
thalidomide, 471, 478–9
drugs, psychoactive
LSD, 476
drugs, psychotropic, 393, 394, 442
abuse of, 476
Duesberg, Peter, 435
Dunant, Henri, 226
International Red Cross and, 226
Duseault, Pierre Joseph, 38, 41
Dutch Medical Association, 271
E. coli, 435
in Japan, 436
East Grinstead Plastic Surgery Centre, 383
Ebola fever, 427
Eccles, Sir John, 395, 409
ECGs (electrocardiographs), 109, 261, 306
in cardiology, 283
in hospitals, 274
Eclectic Medical Institute, Cincinnati, 214
ECT (electro–convulsive therapy), 244, 290, 380
École normale, 138
Ecstasy, 475.
See also serotonins
Edinburgh
extramural school, 77
Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, 277
Edinburgh University, 139
Edsall, David, 344
Edwards, Robert, 506
EEG (electroencephalogram), 243
Egypt
cholera in, 128–9
schistosomiasis in, 522
Ehrlich, Paul, 106, 110, 133, 134, 136, 183
electricity
in human body, 115
electrocardiographs. See ECGs
Electro–convulsive therapy. See ECT
Electroencephalogram. See EEG
Electron microscopes. See microscopes
Eli Lilly, 282, 319
Elias, Norbert, 56
Elion, Gertrude, 401, 488
Eliot, George, 73
Elliotson, John, 21, 23
mesmerism and, 22, 24
Elliott, T.R., 296
Ellis Island, New York, 230
embryology,
Emergency Medical Service. See EMS
Emergency Ward 10, 531
EMS (Emergency Medical Service)
in Great Britain, 388, 440
encephalitis lethargica, 238, 250
endocrinology, 285
biochemistry in, 284
endoscopes, 394, 492
energy
conservation of, 115
Engels, Friedrich, 10, 25, 87
England. See Great Britain
Enlightenment
Western thought and, 11
entrepreneurial medicine, 77–81
market incentives for, 77
epidemiology
experimental,
holism and, 314
epilepsy, 176
Epps, John, 207
ER, 533
ER Squibb, 319
Erb, Wilhelm, 142
Eroica, 39
erysipelas, 131, 173
Esbach’s tube, 276
Essay on Population (Malthus), 89
An Essay on the Philosophy of Medical Science (Bartlett), 112
ether
as anesthesia, 23, 156
ethics
for ‘doctor-patient’ relationships, 210
Ethiopia, 519
eugenics, 200, 327–31
contraception, 333
forced sterilization and, 329
Frankfurt Institute for Racial Hygiene, 374
immigration restrictions and, 329
International Congress of Eugenics, 330
in Japan, 328, 330
movements, in Germany, 330
‘race’ and, 327–28
in Russia, 328
What is Race Hygiene (Siemens), 330
Europe. See also Austria; Belgium; Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Great Britain; Greece; Iberian empire; Italy; The Netherlands; Poland; Scotland; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Yugoslavia
birth rates in (1914–1945), 263
GPs in, 453–5
HIV/AIDS in, 434
hospices in, 446, 526
infant mortality in (1995–1996), 525
Rockefeller Foundation in, 370–1
euthanasia, 379
evolution
Darwin, Charles, and, 204
‘experimental’ medicine
Bernard, Claude, on, 120, 123
experiments. See also research, clinical
on animals, 412
on humans, 309–10, 380
vivisection and, 309
The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 322
Faculty of Medicine, Paris, 38, 45
Family Doctor, 520–31
family planning. See contraception
Family Planning Association,
famines
in Belgium, 264
Lancashire cotton, 83
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 514
FAs (Field Ambulances), 255
fascism, 236, 248
Father and Son (Gosse, Edmund), 204
Fayrer, Joseph, 224
FDA (Food and Drug Administration), 293, 479
Federal Child Welfare Act (1924), 334
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic (1938), 293
feldshers, 353, 357, 360, 369
Fell, Jesse Weldon, 205
Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians. See FRCP
Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons. See FRCS
fertility, 503–7.
See also contraception
drugs for, 506
hormone research for, 506
IVF, 506
population and, 503–7
fever, 172
thermometers, 172
trench, 258
typhoid, 90, 131, 172
typhus, 16, 172
fibre-optics, 492
Field Ambulances. See FAs
field ambulances
in WWI, 255
filariasis, 106, 234, 235, 521
mosquitoes and, 106, 235
Finland
nursing in, 449
sterilization laws in, 330
tobacco control in, 432
Finlay, Carlos, 228
Finsen lamps, 109, 275
First Reform Act (1832), 189
First World War. See WWI (World War I)
Fischer, Eugen, 374
Fiske, Deborah, 209
Fit to Fight, 341
Fleming, Sir Alexander, 243, 245, 384, 421, 471
Fletcher, Charles, 531
Fletcher, Sir Walter Morley, 297, 307, 308, 317
Flexner, Abraham, 138, 142, 144, 148, 163, 214, 229, 296–300
Flexner, Simon, 316
Fliess, Wilhelm, 202
Florey, Howard G., 244, 245, 384, 385, 421, 471
in Algiers, 385
Folin, Otto, 307
Food and Agriculture Organization. See FAO
Food and Drug Act (1906), 293
Food and Drug Administration. See FDA
Forbes, John, 42, 43
Fosdick, Raymond, 312
Foster, Michael, 113, 145
Foucault, Michel, 27, 58, 83, 95, 150, 218
‘active bodies’ for, 68
anti-humanism of, 77
on attitudes towards death, 61
on disciplinary systems, 61, 63
on ‘doctor-patient’ relationships, 59
on ‘Laboratory’ medicine, 64
on medical organization (18th cent.),
power concepts of, 27
social constructivism and, 61
foundations, cancer
American Society for the Control of Cancer, 269
British Empire Cancer Campaign, 305
Franco-Anglo-American Anti-Cancer League (1918), 269
in Germany, 187
Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 188
in U.S., 188
foundations, charitable
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, 419
Carnegie Foundation, 272
Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, 419
Rockefeller Foundation, 5, 263
Sir William Dunn Fund, 296
Fourcroy, Antoine-François de, 41
Fracastoro, 124
France, 11.
See also Paris
abortion laws in, 332
American Revolution and, support for, 12
CNRS in, 419
Comité de mendicité in, 40
compulsory vaccinations in, 194
Confedération des Syndicats Médicaux in, 325
cotton industry in, 92
early medical practices in, 13
French Revolution’s influence on, 12, 13
hospital expansion within, 270
hospital income sources in, 352
‘Hospital’ medicine in, 117
medical police in, 40
medical protections in, 212–13
medical schools in, 24, 40–1, 143–4, 298
military death rates, WWI, 252
Napoleonic Criminal Code in, 219
national insurance in, 219, 347
pharmaceutical industry in, 322
prostitution in, 181
public healthcare in, 13–14, 192–4
Social Insurance Law (1928), 325
specialized medicine in, 273–4
surgeons in, 38
Third Republic, 194
tuberculosis management in, 340
vitalism in, 47
WHC in, 254
Franco-Anglo-American Anti-Cancer League (1918), 269
Franco-Prussian War, 47, 142, 144
Frank, Johann Peter, 194
Frankfurt Institute for Racial Hygiene, 374
FRCP (Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians), 146, 273
FRCS (Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons), 146, 305
Frederick III (Emperor), 122
Freeman, Walter, 289
Freiburg, University at, 259
French National League against the Venereal Peril, 342
French Revolution (1789), 12, 13, 37, 54, 98
Frerichs, Friedrich von, 133
Freud, Sigmund, 108, 115, 202, 286
psychoanalysis and, 203
psychosexual development theories of, 202–3
Friedrich-Wilhelms Insitut, Berlin, 231
friendly societies, 217, 219, 345
Fulton, John F., 289
Galen, 112
Galton, Sir Francis, 106, 199
Garrod, Archibald, 110, 135
gas chambers
in Nazi Germany, 378
gastric digestion, 116
gastric ulcers, 481, 494
gastroenterology, 270
Gates, Frederick T., 164, 299
Geigy Company, 474
gender. See women
General Board of Health (Great Britain), 190
General Education Board, 299
General Medical Council. See GMC
General Nursing Council, 280
General Practitioner, 459
general practitioners. See GPs
genetics, 412–14
Geneva Convention, 226
genital mutilation
of women, 527
George, Lloyd, 347
Gerhard, William Wood, 49
germ theory, 123, 172, 191
Koch, Robert, and, 123
Pasteur, Louis, and, 123–6, 158
worms as part of, 124
German Federation of Medical Associations, 378
German measles, 244, 397, 510
German Society for Blood Group Research, 315
Germany. See also Berlin; Germany, Nazi
anti-Semitism in, 133, 184, 203, 297
Association of German Doctors for the Protection of Their Economic Interests in, 219
Association of Psychiatry in, 262
Bildung in, 69
birth rates in (1914–1945), 333–4
cancer foundations in, 187
clinical research in, 311
diptheria immunization programs in, 338
disease prevention programs in, 337
drug rationing in, 502
eugenic movements in, 330
Federal Child Welfare Act (1924), 334
Friedrich-Wilhelms Insitut, 231
hospital expansion within, 270
hospital income sources in, 351–2
Institutes of Pathology in, 259
Kreigsneugeborene in, 263
medical protections in, 213
medical schools, 24, 68–9, 140–3, 297–8
medical science in, 113
military death rates, WWI, 252
military medicine, 382–3
national insurance in, 218–19, 345–6
Nazis in, 373–80
pharmaceutical industry in, 320–1
physiology in, 68, 114
public healthcare in, 194–5
Reich Health Office in, 195
specialized medicine in, 274
state structure within (1800–1849), 11
thalidomide use in, 478
Germany, Nazi, 373–80
Auschwitz, 378
contraceptives availability in, 376
euthanasia in, 379
gas chambers use in, 378
German Federation of Medical Associations during, 378
hospital construction in, 377
human experimentation during, 380
Jewish expulsion from, 377
Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring, 379
medical disbarment in, 377–8
national insurance reorganization in, 377
National Socialism in, 374
National-Socialist Physicians’ Federation in, 378
Nazi Physicians’ League in, 375, 376
Nuremberg Laws in, 379, 416
specialized medicine in, 375
sterilization during, 379
women in, 376
The Gift Relationship (Titmuss), 495
Gisborne, Thomas, 211
Glasgow
medical school in, 158, 422
Glaxo Wellcome, 481, 485
Globule Theory, 69
‘glue ear,’ 492
GMC (General Medical Council), 104, 145, 211, 214, 301
The Gold-Headed Cane (Macmichael), 28, 35
gonorrhoea. See VD (venereal diseases)
Goodsir, John, 75
Gorgas, William C., 224, 371
Gosse, Edmund, 204, 205
Gosse, Emily, 204–9
death from breast cancer, 204–9
Gosse, Philip Henry, 204, 207, 208
gout, 176
Gowers, William, 169, 171
G. P. I. (general paralysis of the insane), 180
GPs (general practitioners), 347–9, 452–6
drug revolution for, 455–6
in Europe, 453–5
in Great Britain (c. 1800), 31
International College of General Practice, 454
in military, 254
population demographics for, 440, 453
‘safe,’ 146
in U.S., 271–2
Graefe, Albrecht von, 169
Graham, Evarts, 414, 428
Grant, Ulysses S., 184
Grassi, Giovanni, 228
Great Britain, 11, 15
‘achromatic’ microscopy in, 74
Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act (1986), 412
Birmingam, 15
BMA in, 220, 254, 389
Bristol, 146
British Medical Association in, 220
British War Office, 254
charitable hospitals in, 151
chlorpromazine use in, 473
cholera outbreaks in, 16, 94, 189, 191, 192
Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), 412
Dangerous Drugs Act (1951), 479
diphtheria immunization programs in, 338
disease control in, 192
drug rationing in, 502
drug safety in, 479
EMS in, 388, 440
Family Planning Association in,
First Reform Act in, 189
general medicine in, 272
GMC in, 145, 211, 214
Health Education Council in, 385
hospital expansion in, 269–70
hospitals income sources in, 351
in India, 12
Industrial Revolution in, 15
infant mortality in, 388
insulin production in, 291
Leeds, 15
Manchester, 15
Maternity and Child Welfare Act (1918), 333
Medical Act (1858), 145, 151, 211, 213
medical education in, 462
medical protections in, 213–14
Medical Register, 214
medical schools in, 21–4, 98, 144–7, 296–7
Mental Health Act (1959), 473
Midwives Act (1936), 333
MRC in, 220, 259, 260, 291–2, 414, 415
National Health Insurance Act (1911), 219, 220, 346, 351
National Health Service Act (1948), 480
national insurance in, 219–20, 497–8
NHS, 151, 191, 388, 415, 440, 497, 501
NIMR (National Institute for Medical Research), 291, 308, 414
nursing history in, 279–81
Penicillin Act (1947), 479
pharmaceutical industry in, 321–2
physiological medicine in, 67
Poor Laws in, 88
prostitution in, 182
psychiatric hospitals in, 442
Public Health Act (1875), 192
public health concerns in, 94–5, 188
Safety of Medicines Act (1968), 480
sanitarianism in, 86
Socialist Medical Association in, 389
specialized medicine in, 273
STD clinics in, 236, 249
Therapeutic Substances Act (1925), 321
Therapeutic Substances Act (1956), 479
tobacco products in, 429
tuberculosis management in, 340, 341
tuberculosis mortality (1841–1970), 425
vaccination laws in, 191
VD in, 342
voluntary hospitals in, 216
Great Exhibition, London (1851), 221
Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, 158, 422
Great War. See WWI (World War I)
Great Windmill Street School, London, 21
Greece
Epidemics Commission in, 364
malaria eradicated from, 372
infant mortality in, 507
Greene, Graham, 472
Greenwood, Major, 316
Gregg, Alan, 297
Gregory, James, 14
Griffith, Frederick, 314
Groningen University, Netherlands, 139
Grote Schurr Hospital, 489
Grotjahn, Alfred, 330
Guy’s Hospital, London, 63
gynaecological surgery, 170
H2-receptor antagonists, 494
haemocytometer, 171, 174
haemoglobin. See blood
haemophilia, 8, 400, 412, 495
haemophiliacs
and HIV/AIDS, 435, 496
Haiti
HIV/AIDS in, 435
Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson, 331
Haldane, John Scott, 259
Halford, Henry, 32, 34, 35
Hall, Marshall, 170
Halloran General Hospital, New York, 283–384
Halsted, William Stewart, 107, 149, 159
Hamburg
cholera epidemic in, 195
Hammersmith Hospital, 305, 459
Hannibal, 532
Hardy, William Bate, 260
Harington, Charles, 285
Harken, D.E., 487
Harvard University, 139, 147, 148, 282, 293, 298, 306, 344
Harvey, William, 34, 112, 318
Hata, Sahachiro, 183
health
centres, 456
GNP percentage expenditures for, 499, 500
per capita expenditures, OECD nations, 499
Health Education Council, 385
‘Health for All by the Year 2000,’ 516, 519, 521
Health of Towns Association, 190
healthcare, public
Chadwick, Edwin, and, 188
epidemic outbreaks and, 16
in France, 13–14, 192–4
in Germany, 194–5
in Great Britain, 94–5, 188
origins of, 188
Pasteur, Louis, and, 194
Rockefeller Foundation and, 369
Heatley, Norman G., 384
Hebra, Ferdinand von, 142
Heidelberg University, 72, 141
Heine, Heinrich, 24
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 103, 114, 115, 141, 167, 169
experimental physics and, 115
Henle, Jacob, 9, 72, 74, 77, 124, 141
medical microscopy and, influence on, 71
hepatitis, 415, 477
heredity
mental asylum population and, 199–200
heroin
abuse of, 476
methadone and, 476
Herrick, James, 283
Hill Burton Act (1946), 440
Hill, Sir Austin Bradford, 414, 428
Himmler, Heinrich, 379
Himsworth, Harold, 417
Hippocrates, 47, 52, 101
traditions of, 136
Hirsch, August, 224
Hirzsfeld, Ludwik, 314, 315
histology. See also microscopes, medical
practical, 75
Hitchings, George, 401, 488–9
Hitler, Adolf, 242, 243, 244, 321, 374
denounces smoking, 375
‘the great physician’, 377
mercy killings and, 379
HIV/AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), 123, 224, 399, 412, 433–5
in Africa, 434, 530
blood and, 496, 497
in developing nations, 522–3
in Europe, 434
in Haiti, 435
identification of, 407
incidence rates for, 433
retroviruses and, 412
thalidomide use for, 479
UNAIDS and, 515
WHO and, 434, 515
World Bank and, 515
Hobsbawm, Eric, 28, 32
on invented tradition, 32–3
Hodgkin, Dorothy, 397, 410
Hodgkin, Sir Alan, 395, 409, 412
Hodgkin, Thomas, 9, 79
Hoffmann, Erich, 183
holism, 267–9
after WWII, 268
bacteriology and, 310
in clinical research, 310–11
epidemiology and, 314
modernization’s effect on, 268
Holland. See The Netherlands
home visits
by nurses, 349
homeopathy, 7, 137, 207, 214, 374
homeostasis, 117, 268, 311
homosexuality, 200, 253, 333
hookworm, 249, 368, 369, 371–3
Rockefeller programmes and, 368, 369, 371–3
Hôpital de Pennsylvanie, 49
Hopkins, Frederick Gowland, 109, 243, 308
Hopkins, Harold, 492
Hoppe-Seyler, Felix, 142
Horder, Lord Thomas, 317, 322
Hörlein, Heinrich, 320
hormones, 318
for fertility, 506
replacement therapy, 507
Horsley, Victor, 159, 253
hospices, 444–6
in Europe, 446, 526
Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, 379, 422
‘Hospital’ medicine, 54, 56–8
authority under, 58
‘Bedside’ medicine v., 54
French, 117
hospitals, 150–62, 269–71, 349–52.
See also hospitals, lying-in; hospitals, military; hospitals, nursing; hospitals, pavilion; hospitals, psychiatric; hospitals, public; hospitals, specialized; hospitals, surgery; hospitals, voluntary
Abbaye de Royaument, 254
African-Americans in, 350–1
Alder Hey, 459
anesthesia experiments at, 23
architecture of, 151–5
Botkin, 363
Bushnell General, 384
in Canada, 379, 422, 445
Charing Cross,
charitable, in Great Britain, 151
Charité, 274
Cook County Hospital, 293
departmentalization of, 270–1
ECGs in, 274
in France, 270
in Germany, 270, 351–2
in Great Britain, 269–70, 351
Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, 158, 422
Grote Schurr Hospital, 489
Guy’s, 63
Halloran General, 384
Hammersmith Hospital, 305, 459
Hôpital de Pennsylvanie, 49
Hospital for Sick Children, 379, 422
income sources for, 350–2
Johns Hopkins, 149–233
length of stay in, 442, 502
The London Hospital, 283
lying-in, 27
Massachusetts General, 155
medical schools attached to, 138–9
Middlesex, 184, 206
le Midi, 180
midwifery in, 451
modern, 441
National Heart Hospital, 489
in Nazi Germany, 377
Necker, 42
nursing, 161–2, 278–1, 447–50
Papworth Hospital, 489
pavilion, 153–5, 193
Peter Bent Brigham, 488
post WWII, 439–44
practices within, 274–8
private health insurance and, 350
public, 26
Rockefeller Institute Hospital, 313
Royal Free, 296
Royal Ophthalmic, 19
Royal Victoria Hospital, 445
St. Thomas’s, 55, 154
in Soviet Union, 441
specialization in, 271–4
specialized, 19, 185
surgery, 155–60
UCH, 21, 23
in U.S., 151, 216
voluntary, 216, 264
hospitals, lying-in
for women, 27
hospitals, military
in Soviet Union, 353–4
hospitals, nursing, 161–2, 278–81, 447–50
in Europe, 161
‘nurse practitioners’ and, 447
pre-WWI, 278
training in, 278
hospitals, pavilion, 153–5, 193
hospitals, psychiatric,
in Great Britain, 442
in U.S., 442
hospitals, public, 26
in Paris (WWI), 265
hospitals, specialized, 19
board committees for, 272
for cancer, 185
in France, 273–4
hospitals, surgery, 155–60
hospitals, voluntary, 216, 264.
See also charitable hospitals
Hôtel-Dieu, Paris, 38, 39, 62, 65
medical cadavers and, 26
Hounsfield, Godfrey, 398, 399, 469
Howard University, 301
Howell, William Henry, 149
HRT (hormone replacement therapy). See hormones
human experiments, 309–10
during Nazi Germany, 380
Human Genome Project, 401, 413
Humboldt, Alexander von, 213
Hume, Joseph, 99
Hunter, John, 33, 34, 51, 79, 112, 179
Hunter, William, 21
Huntington’s chorea, 379, 422
Hutchinson, Jonathan, 181
Huxley, Andrew, 395, 409
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 119, 149
hydrotherapy. See spas
Hygienic Laboratory, 415
hysteria, 166, 201–2
as psychological disorder, 202
women and, 201
Iberian empire
Latin American colonies under, 12
IG Farben, 321
illegitimacy
in World War I, 263
in Germany, 333
Illich, Ivan, 458
immigration
Canadian restrictions for, 329
eugenics as factor in, 329
quota systems for, 230
U.S. restrictions for, 230
Immigration Restriction Act (1924), 329
immunity
theory of, 132
immunization
for children, 510
against diphtheria, Germany, 338
against diphtheria, Great Britain, 338
against diphtheria, U.S., 338
against tuberculosis, U.S., 338–9
immunology, 132–5.
See also vaccines
biochemical individuality and, 135
biochemistry and, 135
serum therapy and, 134
vaccines, 125, 126
Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 188
Imperial Chemical Industries, 481
IMS (Indian Medical Service), 232, 235, 236, 238, 241–5, 248, 250–66
Index Medicus, 226, 420
India
All India Institute of Medical Sciences, 519
Bhopal, 437
cholera epidemics in, 129
Contagious Diseases Acts, 182–3, 191
Great Britain in, 12
IMS in, 232, 235, 236, 238
mesmerism in, 23
Rockefeller Foundation in, 372–3
water resources in, 524
‘Western’ medicine in, 519
Indian Medical Service. See IMS
Industrial Revolution, 98
disease during, 16
in Great Britain, 15
urban development as result of, 16
infant mortality
per population, OECD nations (1800–2000), 509
infirmaries
under Poor Laws, 89
influenza, 16, 90
global outbreaks of, 9, 10, 237, 249–50
1918 epidemic, 241, 265
INSERM (Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale), 420
Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale. See INSERM
Institut Pasteur, 107, 132, 144, 163, 314, 367, 419
Institute d’Hydrologie, 288
institutes, research, 162–5, 417–22
Institut Pasteur, 132, 144, 163, 314, 367, 419
Institutes of Pathology, Germany, 259
International Association for Cancer Research, 188
Lister Institute, London, 419
Merck Research Laboratory, 319
NIMR, 291
Rockefeller Foundation and, 164, 257
Rockefeller Institute, 164, 287, 419
in Soviet Union, 357
during WWII, 417
The Institute for the Protection and Care of Motherhood, 360
insulin
applications for, 276–7, 287
discovery of, 410
insurance, malpractice, 458
insurance, national, 345–7
AMA and, 220
friendly societies, 217, 219, 345
in France, 219, 347
in Germany, 218–19, 345–6
in Great Britain, 219–20, 497–8
National Health Insurance Act (1911), 219, 220, 346
National Insurance Law (1938), 347
in Nazi Germany, 377
in The Netherlands, 346
Sickness Insurance Bill, 218
in Soviet Union, 358
in U.S., 220, 346–7
insurance, private health
hospitals and, 350
International Association for Cancer Research, 188
International Baby Food Action Network, 527
International College of General Practice, 454
International Congress of Eugenics, 330
International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade, 523–4
International Medical Congresses, 105, 226–7
international organizations. See organizations, international
International Red Cross. See Red Cross
International Sanitary Conferences, 222, 223–6
International Sanitary Congress, 223, 224
International Society of Surgeons, 293
internationalism, 221–8, 363–73
Africa and, 228
cholera and, 222–3
League of Nations and, 364–7
An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (Bernard), 65, 117
The Invention of Tradition (Hobsbawm), 28
in-vitro fertilization. See IVF
Ireland
poor in, 91, 230
poverty in, 91, 230
Irish Sisters of Charity, 445
Italy, 104, 228, 242, 244
emmigration from, 230
infant mortality in, 507, 509
malaria in, 228, 238, 365, 372
psychiatry in, 198
reduction in family size in, 513
venereal disease in, 385, 386
IVF (in-vitro fertilization), 506
‘test-tube babies’ from, 506
Jacobi, Mary Putnam, 147
Jalland, Pat, 209, 210
Japan
E. coli bacteria in, 436
eugenics in, 328
metamphetamine abuse in, 477
National Eugenics Law (1940), 330
National Insurance Law (1938), 347
Jauregg, Julius von Wagner, 242, 289
Jefferson, Geoffrey, 256
Jenner, Edward, 125, 132
Jenner Institute, 164
Jews
and eugenics, 327–8
in German universities, 140
in Nazi Germany, 374–5, 377–80
in World War II Britain, 388
Jewson, N. D., 56, 58, 203
on ‘Laboratory’ medicine, 64
Marxism and, 52
John Curtin School, Canberra, 391, 421
Johns Hopkins Hospital, 107, 149, 159
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 123, 148, 149, 214, 285, 298, 299, 306, 368, 369
Jones, Robert, 257
Joseph II (Czar), 11
Enlightened Despotism and, 11
Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, 419
Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 420
Journal of the American Psychiatric Association, 379
Kanner, Leo, 513
Kaposi’s sarcoma, 105, 468
Kautsky, Karl, 303
Keats, John, 176
Kelsey, Frances, 479, 480
Kendall, Edward Calvin, 285, 392
Kendrew, Sir John, 410
Kennedy, Ian, 532
Keogh, Sir Alfred, 253, 259
kidney disease, 8, 171
King Lear (Shakespeare), 197
King of Hearts, 532
Kings College, London, 139–40
Klein, Melanie, 286
Klineberg, Otto, 331
Knox, Robert, 51, 78
Koch, Robert, 105, 106, 109, 126, 141, 224, 226
career of, 126–30
cholera research by, 128, 224, 225
germ theory and, 123
Postulates of, 130
tuberculosis and, 175, 177, 187
Koch, Walter, 311
Kocher, Theodor, 110, 159
Koch’s Postulates, 130
Kölliker, Albrecht, 72
Kölliker, Rudolph von, 121, 122, 226
Kraepelin, Emil, 203
Krebs cycle, 409
Krebs, Sir Hans, 393, 409
Kreigsneugeborene (war infants), 263
‘Laboratory’ medicine, 57, 58, 64–9, 73, 118–19
authority under, 58
Foucault, Michel, on, 64
Jewson, N. D., on, 64
Laborit, Henri, 473
Laennec, René-Théophile, 8, 41–3, 45–6, 52, 69, 112, 166
at Collegé de France, 46
stethoscope development by, 42, 166
Lambert, Sylvester M., 369
Lancashire cotton famine, 83
Lancefield, Rebecca C., 314
The Lancet, 31, 91, 173, 209, 231, 478
Landsteiner, Karl, 108, 134, 165, 243, 244
Lane, Sir Arbuthnot, 294
Largactil. See chlorpromazine
Larrey, Dominique-Jean, 40
laryngoscope, 169
Laseron, Edward, 205
Lassa fever, 427
Latin America. See also Brazil; Peru
under Iberian empire, 12
Rockefeller Foundation in, 370
yellow fever in, 372
Laveran, Charles, 106, 236, 248
Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring, 379
Lawrence, William, 14, 51
lazarettos. See quarantines
League of Nations, 241, 364–7, 514
Health Organization of, 5
malaria control under, 365, 366
Lease Lend Act (1942), 389
La Leche International, 508
Lee, Robert, 170
Leeds
as industrial centre, 15
Legionnaires Disease, 433
Lehmann, Heinz, 473
Leiden University, Netherlands, 139
Leipzig University, 141
Leipziger Verband, 219
leprosy, 235, 366, 369
cancer and, 187
thalidomide and, 396, 478
Lesch, John, 65
leukaemia, 170
discovery of, 10, 121
Levan, Albert, 412
Lewis, Sinclair, 309
Lewis, Thomas, 261, 262
liberalism, 15
during 19 cent., 211–12
occupational control under, 212
licensing. See medical licensing
Licentiateship of the Royal College of Physicians. See LRCP
Liebig, Justus von, 141
Life, 352
life expectancy rates
for aging populations, selected nations (1890–1970), 501
in developing nations, 524–25
for OECD nations (1800–2000), 423
World Health Report, 477
Life of Philip Henry Gosse (Gosse, Edmund), 204
Lima, Almeida, 289
The Limits to Medicine (Illich), 458
Linacre, Thomas, 36
Lister Institute, London, 164, 419
Lister, Joseph, 156–8, 226
antisepsis system of, 104, 157, 158
Liston, Robert, 23, 24
as anesthesia pioneer, 24
lithium, 475
clinical trials for, 475
Livingstone, David, 103, 233–5
locomotor ataxia. See syphilis
Loeb, Jacques, 165
Loewi, Otto, 244, 308
Löffler, Friedrich, 130
London
Council of the Royal College of Surgeons, 21
Great Windmill Street School, 21
London Debating Society, 86
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 305
London Statistical Society, 90
Royal College of Physicians, 29–31, 34, 37
Royal College of Surgeons, 30–2, 34, 51
UCL, 21, 119
London Debating Society, 86
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 108, 305
London School of Tropical Medicine, 238, 252
London Statistical Society, 90
The London Hospital, 283
Longfellow, Henry, 152
Louis, Pierre, 9, 112, 166
Lower, Richard, 490
LRCP (Licentiateship of the Royal College of Physicians), 301
LSD, 476
‘Ludlow massacre,’ 196, 370–3
Ludwig, Carl, 10, 114, 141, 163
lung cancer. See cancer
Lysenko, T.D., 358
Lysenkoism, 358
Macewen, William, 159
MacIndoe, Archibald, 383
Mackenzie, James, 109, 261
Mackenzie, Sir Morrell, 122
MacLean, Hugh, 296
Macleod, John J.R., 284
Macmichael, William, 28, 35
‘mad cow disease.’ See BSE
Magendie, François, 24, 47, 65, 66, 75, 79, 116
experimental research of, 67
gastric digestion research by, 116
The Magic Mountain (Mann), 177
magnetic resonance imaging. See MRI
Mahler, Halfdan, 529
malaria, 228, 238, 407
DDT and, 472
League of Nations and, 365, 366
management of, in Soviet Union, 355
at Mian Mir, 237, 238, 249–50
mosquitoes and, 235–8, 248
Rockefeller Foundation and, 372
WHO and, 523
World Health Assembly and, 523
Mall, Franklin Paine, 149
Mallon, Mary, 131, 196.
See also ‘Typhoid Mary’
malpractice insurance. See insurance, malpractice
Malthus, Thomas, 89
Manchester
as industrial centre, 15
Mann, Thomas, 177, 234–5
Manson, Sir Patrick, 106, 108, 234–6, 238
Manual of Practical Hygiene (Parkes), 232
March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundations, 422
Marey, Etienne-Jules, 104, 172
Marine Hospital Service (U.S.), 196
Marshall, Barry, 400, 494
Martin Arrowsmith (Lewis), 309, 336
Martineau, Harriet
mesmerism and, 22
Marx, Karl, 10, 25, 105, 196
marxism, 52
M∗A∗S∗H, 532
Massachusetts General Hospital, 155
masturbation, 253
as cause of TB, 17
as enfeebling, 333
Maternity and Child Welfare Act (1918), 333
Maternity and Infancy Act (1921), 331
May & Baker, 322
Mayo Clinic, Minnesota, 244, 304, 420
Mayo, William J., 257
McBride, William, 478
McCormick, Kathleen, 505
McGill University, Montreal, 422
McIlroy, Louise, 296
McKeown, Thomas, 428
McMaster University, Canada,
Mead, Richard, 36
Meakins, Jonathan, 291, 296
measles, 432
German, 510
mortality rates for, Great Britain (1841–1970), 511
mortality rates, U.S. (1900–1970), 512
Medawar, Sir Peter, 394, 488
Médecins sans Frontières (Doctors without Borders), 530
in South Africa, 530
media
BBC, 533
for BMA, 531
medicine in, 530–4
nurses in, 532
mediate auscultation. See auscultation
Medical Act (1858), 145, 151, 211, 213
Medical College of Virginia, 490
medical eclecticism, 137
medical education, 459–62.
See also medical schools
in China, 461–2
in Great Britain, 462
PBL and, 461–2
reform, in U.S., 462
in Soviet Union, 460
medical fees, 215–21
charity and, 216–17
medical licensing
by Royal College of Physicians of London, 29
in U.S., 212, 214
Medical Officers of Health, 190, 229
Medical Police, 81–6
across international borders, 229–30
efficiency of, 82
in France, 40
in Germany, 194
medical practices, France
advertisements for, 18
ambulance volante and, 40
early, 13
organization of, 31
medical practices, Great Britain, 11
GP’s role in, 31
organization of, 31
medical practices, Soviet Union, 353–3
Medical Register, 104, 214
medical research. See research, medical
Medical Research Council. See MRC
medical schools, 20–5, 136–40.
See also medical schools, France; medical schools, Germany; medical schools, Great Britain; medical schools, Netherlands; medical schools, practical; medical schools, universities; medical schools, U.S.; proprietary schools
apprenticeships during, 136–7
in Australia, 421
Australian National University, 421
in Brazil, 370
in Canada, 422
in China, 373, 461–2
in France, 24, 40–1, 143–4, 298
in Germany, 24, 140–3, 297–8
in Great Britain, 21–4, 98, 144–7, 296–7
Hippocratic tradition as part of, 136
at hospitals, 138–9
International College of General Practice, 454
John Curtin School, 421
McGill University, Montreal, 422
officiers de santé, 138, 212
postgraduate education and, 303–5
practical, 138
proprietary, 137, 214
qualifications for, 299–305
in Scotland, 21, 77, 158, 422
in Soviet Union, 359
in Switzerland, 148
at universities, 139–40, 295–9
in U.S., 123, 147–50
women in, 301
Wundaerzte, 138
medical schools, France, 24, 40–1, 143–4
Academy of Surgeons, 38
auscultation in, 174
Faculty of Medicine, Paris, 38, 45
officiers de santé, 138, 212
postgraduate study in, 305
qualifications for, 302
School of Medicine, Paris, 41, 138, 222
surgery in, 38
Val-de-Grâce, 231
medical schools, Germany, 68–9, 140–3
‘assistantships’ as part of, 304
Berlin University, 70, 141
course choice within, 24
Heidelberg University, 72, 141
international enrollment in, 141
Leipzig University, 141
postgraduate study in, 305
Privatdozenten, 137, 140
qualifications for, 302
surgery development within, 142
Vienna University, 141
Wundaerzte, 138, 140
medical schools, Great Britain, 98, 144–7
course choice within, 24
FRCS and, 305
GMC, 145, 211, 214, 301
Great Windmill Street School, 21
King’s College, 139–40
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 305
London School of Tropical Medicine, 238, 252
LRCP and, 301
MRCP and, 305
MRCS and, 301
postgraduate study in, 304–5
qualifications for, 301–2
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, 273
Royal College of Physicians of London, 29–31, 34, 37, 144, 146, 272
Royal College of Surgeons of London, 30–2, 34, 51, 144, 146
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, 139
UCH, 21
UCL, 21–3, 139, 145
medical schools, Netherlands
Groningen University, 139–43
Leiden University, 139
medical schools, practical, 138
medical schools, universities, 139–40, 295–9
Edinburgh University, 139
in France, 298
in Germany, 297–8
in Great Britain, 296–7
Groningen University, 139
Haldane Report on, 296
Harvard University, U.S., 139
Heidelberg University, 72
Johns Hopkins University, 123, 148, 214, 299
Leiden University, 139
Leipzig University, 141
Oxford University, 20, 119–24
UCL, 21, 119, 139, 145
UGC and, 296
University of Berlin, 70
University of Breslau, 68
University of Pennsylvania, 139
in U.S., 298–9
Vienna University, 141
medical schools, U.S., 123, 147–50, 298–9
African-Americans in, 301
American College of Physicians, 272
American College of Surgeons, 272
Howard University, 301
Johns Hopkins University, 123, 148, 214, 299
Medical College of Virginia, 490
Meharry Medical College, 301
qualifications for, 301
University of Pennsylvania, 139
women in, 147–8
medical science. See also bacteriology; cardiology; epidemiology; immunology; pathology; physiological medicine
bacteriology, 123–32, 310
Bartlett, Elisha, on, 112
embryology,
endocrinology, 285
epidemiology, 314
German as main language for, 141
in Germany, 113
immunology, 132–5
molecular biology, 413–14
neonatology, 510
nephrology, 284
pathology, 113–23
technology and, 111
before WWI, 111
medical teaching. See medical schools
medical traditions, 27
Hobsbawm, Eric, on, 32–3
Medical Women’s Federation, 339
medicine, 2–3.
See also ‘Bedside’ medicine; entrepreneurial medicine; ‘Hospital’ medicine; ‘Laboratory’ medicine; military medicine; ‘Paris’ medicine; physiological medicine; preventative medicine; specialized medicine
‘Bedside,’ 54, 56–58, 73
corporations and, 5
demographic changes from, 4
in developing nations, 519–30
The Enlightenment’s influence on, 13
entrepreneurial, 77–81
‘experimental,’ 64
general, in Great Britain, 272
general timeline for (1800–1849), 10
general timeline for (1850–1913), 103–10
general timeline for (1914–1945), 235, 241–5
general timeline for (1945–2000), 391–403
global interests in, 5–6
hierarchical system in, 28–33
‘Hospital,’ 54, 56–8
‘Laboratory,’ 57, 58, 64–9, 73
licensing for, 29
in media, 530–4
military, 20, 60–1
misogyny under, 27
nation-state creation and, 5
‘Paris’ school, 41, 46–8, 73
physiological, 45, 113–20
preventative, 462–4
Quaker ideals in, 79
‘Rational,’ 73
scientific reductionism and, 3
specialized, 271–4, 281, 438–9
traditions of, 27
tropical, 228
Medicine at the Paris Hospital (Ackerknecht), 53
Medline, 304, 420
Meharry Medical College, 301
Meharry University, 301
Meister, Jacob, 126
melancholia, 166, 289
Mellanby, Edward, 308
Membership of the Royal College of Physicians. See MRCP
Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons. See MRCS
Mengele, Joseph, 374
mental depression. See depression, mental
Mental Health Act (1959), 473
Merck and Company, 319
Merck Research Laboratory and, 319
mercury, 183, 286
mesmerism, 22
anesthesia and, 23
Elliotson, John, and, 22, 24
in India, 23
within UCL, 22, 23
metabolism
biochemistry and, 284
metamphetamines
abuse, in Japan, 477
Metchnikoff, Elie, 106, 110, 132, 133, 183, 228, 314
methadone, 476
methicillin
S. aureus, resistant strains, 444, 472
Mexico
Rockefeller intervention in, 368–70
Meyer, Adolf, 285
Mian Mir, Pakistan
malaria at, 237, 238, 249–50
miasma, 153
Miasma and Contagion (Henle), 119–24
microorganisms, 125
anthrax, 132
erysipelas, 131
tubercle bacillus, 128, 130
microscopes, medical, 69–7.
See also ‘achromatic’ microscopes; compound microscopes
‘achromatic,’ 69
chest, 70
compound, 69
Dolland, John, and, 70
electron, 410, 463
Henle, Jacob, and, 71
importance of, 47
practical histology and, 75
stereoscope v., 71
systemic development of, 71–2
Middlemarch (Eliot), 73
Middlesex Hospital, 184, 206
le Midi Hospital, 180
midwifery, 209, 331, 452.
See also childbirth
in hospitals, 451
The Institute for the Protection and Care of Motherhood, 360
regulation of, 106, 108, 451
variety of services for, 334–6
midwives
per population, Europe, 452
Midwives Act (1936), 333
Mietzsch, Fritz, 320
milieu intérieur, 117
military medicine, 20, 60–1
Army School of Nursing, 279
CCS, 255, 256, 383
FA, 255
German, 382–3
GPs in, 254
IMS, 232, 235, 236, 238
nurses as part of, 447
RAMC, 232, 254, 258, 264, 382, 386
RAPs for, 255
RMOs, 255
surgery and, 20
tropical medicine and, 231–3
wound management as part of, 256
Ministry of Health, 241, 482, 508
Ministry of the Medical Industry, 482
Minot, Charles, 139
Minot, George, 243, 282
Mitchell, Silas Weir, 201
MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccine
autism and, 533
molecular biology, 413–14
Human Genome Project, 413
Moniz, Egas, 289, 392
Monod, Henri, 194
Monro, Alexander, 79
‘moral insanity,’ 198
‘moral’ therapy, 198
for neurasthenia, 201
theories of, 198
Morel, Benedict Augustin, 200
mortality
from CHD (1986–1996), 430, 431
during childbirth, 209
female (1914–1945), 263
global rates (1914–1945), 236, 249
infant, 263–6, 388, 509, 525
from lung cancer, 428–30
maternal, in Africa, 527
for measles/diphtheria, Great Britain (1841–1970), 511
for measles/diptheria, U.S. (1900–1970), 512
rates, OECD nations (1800–2000), 424
trends, 427–33
Morton, William T. G., 10, 155
Mosquito or Man (Boyce), 236, 248–50
mosquitoes, 242
malaria and, 235–8, 366, 523
parasite transmission by, 106, 107, 228, 235–6, 371–2
motherhood, 95
centrality of, 82, 332, 360, 376
“Mother’s Little Helper,” 473
MRC (Medical Research Council), 220, 259, 260, 291–2, 307, 414, 415, 418
in Canada, 422
new drug introductions and, 292
MRCP (Membership of the Royal College of Physicians), 146, 273, 305
MRCS (Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons), 301
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 469, 493
Müller, Hermann, 391, 472
Müller, Johannes, 68, 69, 71, 92, 114, 122
Mullis, Kary, 400, 468
Municipal Sanitation in the United States (Chapin), 196
Murphy, John, 159
Murphy, William, 243, 282
Murray, Joseph, 392, 401, 488
mutual aid societies, 217
Myers, Charles Samuel, 262
Nansen, Fridtjof, 364
Napoleon, 7, 213
Napoleonic Criminal Code, 219
Napoleonic Wars, 7, 231
National Asylum Workers Union, 280
National Board of Health (U.S.), 196
National Eugenics Law (1940), 330
National Health Insurance Act (1911), 110, 219, 220, 346, 351
National Health Service. See NHS
National Health Service Act (1948), 480
National Heart Hospital, 489
National Institute for Medical Research. See NIMR
National Institutes of Health. See NIH
National Insurance Law (1938), 347
National Library of Medicine. See NLM
National Medical Dictionary, 226
National Polio Foundation, 421.
See also March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundations
National Research Council, 260
National Tuberculosis Association, 341
National Venereal Disease Control Act (1938), 342
National-Socialist Physicians’ Federation, 378
Nazi Physicians’ League, 375, 376
Necker Hospital, Paris, 42
neonatology, 510
nephrology, 284
The Netherlands, 11
medical schools in, 139–43
national insurance in, 346
tuberculosis management in, 340
VD in, 342
neurasthenia, 200–2, 281
Beard, George, and, 200
therapies for, 201
new drugs. See drugs, new
New England Journal of Medicine, 532
New England Medical Center, 488
New Poor Laws, 91, 99, 217.
See also Poor Laws
New York Academy of Medicine, 205
Newcastle, 146
Newman, Sir George, 348
Newsholme, Arthur, 335, 343
NGOs (non-governmental organizations), 2
in developing nations, 519, 530
NHS (National Health Service), 151, 191, 388, 415, 440, 497
drug prescriptions under, 484, 485
patient’s rights under, 458
restructuring of, 501
Nightingale, Florence, 152, 161–2, 232
NIH (National Institutes of Health), 306, 398
animal experiments and, 412
funding for, 417
NLM and, 420
NIMR (National Institute for Medical Research), 291, 308, 414
nitrous oxide, 156
Nixon, Richard, 457
NLM (National Library of Medicine), 420
Nobel Prizes, 228
Noguchi, Hideyo, 372
non-governmental organizations. See NGOs
North America. See also Canada; U.S.
cholera outbreaks in, 16, 17
North Yemen
water resources in, 524
Nuremberg Laws, 379, 416
‘nurse practitioners,’ 447
nurses, 276, 337.
See also Nightingale, Florence
as anesthetists, 279
General Nursing Council for, 280
home visits by, 349
male, in Great Britain, 280
media images of, 532
in military, 447
‘nurse practitioners’ v., 447
surgery and, 448
VAD, 254
nursing. See also hospitals, nursing
in Finland, 449
in Great Britain, 279–81
modern, 449–50
‘monthly,’ 209
Nightingale, Florence, and, 104, 152, 161–2
‘primary,’ 449
‘process,’ 448–9
Rockefeller Foundation support for, 279
state societies for, 279
unions for, 280
WHO and, 449
women and, 162
obesity
among children, 514
CHD and, as factor for, 431
officiers de santé, 138, 212
O’Key, Elizabeth, 22, 23
O’Key, Jane, 22
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 119
oncology, 438.
See also cancer
One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, 532
ophthalmic surgery, 169
ophthalmoscope, 167–235
invention of, 103, 115
organ therapies, 291
organ transplants, 491, 492
organizations, charitable
Rockefeller Foundation, 5, 164, 248, 257, 279, 302, 306, 311–12, 365, 367–73, 384, 461, 515, 518
organizations, international, 519
Children’s Vaccine Initiative between, 516
cooperation between, 516
FAO, 514
League of Nations, 364–7, 514
Oxfam, 515
Red Cross, 5, 515
Rockefeller Foundation, 5, 164, 248, 257, 279, 302, 306, 311–12, 365, 367–73, 384, 461, 515, 518
Save the Children Fund, 515
UN, 514
UNAIDS, 515
UNDP, 515
UNFPA, 515
UNICEF, 514
WHO, 5, 406, 514
World Bank, 514, 515
orthopaedics
during WWI, 257
Osler, William, 1, 105, 107, 149, 164, 179, 211
otolaryngologists, 272
otology. See otolaryngologists
otoscope, 169
Our Bodies Ourselves: a health book by and for women, 458
Oxfam, 515
Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine, 445
Oxford University, 20, 119–24
pacemakers, 488
paediatrics
in group practice, 348
at Johns Hopkins, 299
as specialist field, 274, 439, 508, 510
and women doctors, 148
Paget, James, 32, 205
‘palliative care,’ 445.
See also hospices
WHO and, 445–6
Palmer, Daniel David, 214
Panama Canal, 109, 127–237, 241, 249
Panorama, 533
Pappworth, Maurice, 416
Papworth Hospital, 489
Paracelsus, 268
Pardee, Harold, 283
Paris
Hôtel-Dieu, 38, 39, 62, 65
Institut Pasteur, 132, 144
Medical School, 41, 138, 222
public hospital system in, 265
‘Paris’ medicine, 41, 46, 48, 73
Ackerknecht, Erwin H., on, 53–4
Cabanis, Pierre Jean Georges, and, 52
characteristics of, 53–4
doctor-patient relationship under, 55
history of, 47
in U.S., 48
Park, William Hallock, 338
Parkes, Edmund, 232
Parkinson, John, 283
Parkinson’s Disease, 8, 476
Parkinson’s Disease Society, 476
Parr, Bartholomew, 87
Parran, Thomas, 342
Parsons, Talcott, 343
Pasteur, Louis, 104, 105, 106, 113, 127, 129, 136, 138, 226
French public health and, 194
germ theory and, 123–6, 158
immunology research by, 132
microorganism research by, 125
pathology, 113–23
blood, 468
cellular, 121, 165
patient’s rights, 458
in clinical research, 309
NHS and, 458
Paton, Sir William, 481
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 109, 285
Paxton, Sir Joseph, 221
PBL (Problem Based Learning), 461–2
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction), 468
Pearce, Richard M., 297, 368
Pearse, Innes, 349
Pearson, Karl, 316
Peckham Health Centre, London, 348
Peking Union Medical College. See PMC
penicillin, 287, 410, 470–2, 484
penicillium notatum, 471
production of, in WWII, 384–5
syphilis and, 471
Penicillin Act (1947), 479
penicillium notatum, 471
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. See PETA
Percival, Thomas, 7, 211
percussion, 73, 166
pernicious anaemia, 10, 170, 281–3
Peru
DOTS in,
Perutz, Max, 396, 397, 410
Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 68
pesticides. See DDT
PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals), 399, 412
Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, Boston, 488
Petri dish, 174
Pettenkofer, Max von, 194, 224
Petty, William, 90
Pfeufer, Karl, 73
phagocytosis
theory of, 132
pharmaceutical industry, 318–23, 480–7.
See also drug companies
in China, 483
in France, 322
in Germany, 320–1
in Great Britain, 321–2
hormones, 318
mergers within, 481–2
price controls for, 502
in South Africa, 530
in Soviet Union, 482–3
in Switzerland, 321
vitamins, 318
before WWII, 481
Pharmacia, 481
philanthropy. See also charities; foundations, cancer; foundations, charitable
for research, 305
physicians. See doctors
Physicians for the twenty-first century: general professional education of the physician (Association of American Medical Colleges), 462
physics
experimental, 115
Physiocrats, 39
physiological medicine, 45
in clinical research, 306–7
experimental, 66, 67
in Germany, 68, 114
in Great Britain, 67, 113–20
internal secretions study as part of, 284–5
thermometry in, 165
‘the pill,’ 505–7
Roman Catholic Church and, 506
Pinel, Philippe, 7, 198
plague, 225
in India, 427, 436
in Martin Arrowsmith, 309–10
PMC (Peking Union Medical College), 373
pneumonia, 312
causes of, 313
Poland
health ministry in, 324
poliomyelitis, 237, 250, 422
management of, 428
vaccine development for, 463
WHO and, 464, 515
pollution
environmental, 344, 375, 437–8, 471, 472
Polymerase Chain Reaction. See PCR
poor. See poverty
Poor Houses, 90
Poor Law Amendment Act (1834), 89
Poor Law infirmaries, 89, 150, 151
Poor Law Workers’ Trade Union, 280
Poor Laws, 88
infirmaries under, 89, 150, 151
social security and, 218
during WWI, 254
Poovey, Mary, 95
‘sanitary ideal’ for, 95
population
control, 503, 525–6
and fertility, 503–7
global, 503
Port Health Authority, 229
Pouchet, F. A., 120–5
poverty
disease as result of, 89–97
practical medical schools. See medical schools, practical
preventative medicine, 462–4.
See also vaccines
Prichard, James Cowles, 198
Primary Health Care
at Alma Ata, 486
Principles and Practice of Medicine (Osler), 164
Prions, 400, 402, 467
Privatdozenten, 137, 140
Problem Based Learning. See PBL
proprietary schools, 137
in U.S., 137–8, 214
prostitution
brothels and, 181
in France, 181
in Great Britain, 182
syphilis and, 179, 181–2
in U.S., 182
Proust, Adrian, 224
Provincial Medical and Surgical Association, 215
Prozac, 401, 475.
See also serotonins
Prussia
disease outbreaks in, 92–3
psychiatrists
Freud, Sigmund, 115, 202, 286
Meyer, Adolph, 285
Sullivan, Harry Stack, 286
in WWII, 387
psychiatry. See also diseases, mental; Freud, Sigmund
American Psychiatric Association, 273
Association of Psychiatry (Germany), 262
categories for, 198
child, 513
clinical research in, 311–12
development of (1914–1945), 285–6
Freud, Sigmund, and, 202
functional disorders for, 200, 387
mental diseases and, 197
‘modern,’ 198
‘moral’ therapy and, 198
therapeutics for, 289
psychoanalysis, 203
for children, 286
Sullivan, Harry Stack, and, 286
psychosurgery, 289–90
‘shock’ therapies as part of, 290
Public Health Acts
of (1848), 10, 94
of (1875), 105, 192
puerperal fever, 156, 313, 450
pulmonary pthisis, 175–8.
See also tuberculosis
Purkynĕ, Jan Evangelista, 68, 69
Putnam, Mary. See Jacobi, Mary Putnam
Quaker ideals
in medicine, 79
quarantines
for cholera, 129, 222
land, 224
Quetelet, Adolphe, 90
quinine, 233, 238, 286, 365
rabies
international control of, 230
vaccines, 126, 164, 233, 367
‘race’
eugenics and, 327–8
Radcliffe, John, 36
radiation
acute sickness from, 174, 437
atom bombs and, 437
discovery of, 174
radioimmunoassay tests, 467
radium
‘bombs,’ 274
as cancer treatment, 269, 287
‘collars,’ 274
RAMC (Royal Army Medical Corps), 232, 258, 264, 382, 386
expansion of, 254
randomized controlled trial, 291, 391, 414
Ransome, Arthur, 177
RAPs (Regimental Aid Posts), 255
Rather, L. J., 185
‘Rational’ medicine, 73
Rayer, Pierre, 143
Reche, Otto, 315
Recklinghausen, Friedrich von, 142
Red Cross, 5, 104, 515
American, 495
Dunant, Henri, and, 226
Rockefeller Foundation support for, 264
Reed, Walter, 228, 236
Regimental Aid Posts. See RAPs
Regimental Medical Officers. See RMOs
Registration Act (1836), 90
Reich Health Office, 195
relationships, ‘doctor-patient,’ 3, 19, 203–11, 456
ethics codes for, 210
Foucault, Michel, on, 59
hospitals’ role in, 203–4
under ‘Paris’ medicine, 55
social security and, 217–20
social status as factor for, 210
renal disease, 283–4
The Renal Lesion in Bright’s Disease (Addis), 284
research, basic science, 316–18, 409–12
for cancer, 316
chromatography, 409–10
crystallography, 410
research, clinical, 414–16
in Germany, 311
holism in, 310–11
human experimentation in, 309–10
for infectious diseases, 312–16
NIH and, 306
for non-infectious diseases, 305–12
patient consent as part of, 309
philanthropic support for, 305
physiology as part of, 306–7
in psychiatry, 311–12
Rockefeller Foundation support for, 306
Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 310
research institutes. See institutes, research
research, medical, 305, 408–22.
See also research, clinical
private endowments for, 421–2
retroviruses, 412
revolution
American, 12
French (1789), 12, 13, 37, 54, 98
Industrial, 15, 16, 98
Ricardo, David, 89
Richards, Alfred N., 384
rickets, 263, 274, 292, 334
Ricord, Philippe, 179–80, 182
Rivers, Thomas, 307
Rivett, Geoffrey, 533
RMOs (Regimental Medical Officers), 255
death rates for, 255
Robin, Charles, 143
Robinson, George Canby, 307
Rocci, Scipione Riva, 107, 172
Rockefeller Foundation, 5, 263, 367–73, 515
in China, 373, 461
clinical research support by, 306
establishment of, 236, 248
in Europe, 370–1
in India, 372–3
intentions for, 368
International Red Cross support, 264
in Latin America, 370
malaria prevention and, 372
medical education funding by, 298–9
nursing and, 279
public health schools support by, 369
research institutes and, 164, 257
tropical medicine and, 371
Rockefeller Institute, 109, 164, 287, 419
Hospital at, 313
Rockefeller Institute Hospital, 313
Rockefeller, John D., 164, 299
Rockefeller, John D., Jr., 164
Roehl, William, 320
Rokitanski, Karl, 120
Rolling Stones, 473
Roman Catholic church, 101, 151
‘the pill’ and, 506–15
Röntgen, Wilhelm, 107, 173
X-rays discovery by, 173
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 243, 346
Rose, Wickliffe, 368
Rosen, George, 167
Ross, Ronald, 107, 108, 228, 235–8, 250
Rous, Peyton, 396, 410
Roux, Émile, 134, 183, 224
Royal Army Medical Corps. See RAMC
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, 273
Royal College of Physicians of London, 29–31, 34, 37, 144, 146, 212, 272
licensing by, 29
social standing and, 29–30
Royal College of Surgeons of London, 30–2, 34, 51, 144–6, 212
Royal Free Hospital, 296
Royal Ophthalmic Hospital, London, 19
Royal Society, 260
Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, 445
rubella. See German measles
Rüdin, Ernst, 374
Russell, Frederick F., 368
Russia, 11, 105, 107, 249. See also Soviet Union
eugenics in, 328, 330
Joseph II in, 11
S. aureus
methicillin resistant strains of, 444, 472
Sabin, Albert, 395, 463
Safety of Medicines Act (1968), 480
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, 153–234
St. Bartholomew’s Medical School, 139
St. Christopher’s Hospice, 445–6
St. Elsewhere, 532–3
St. Thomas’s Hospital, 55, 154
Salk, Jonas, 393, 463
salmonellosis, 435
Salpêtrière asylum (for women), 198
Salter, Henry Hyde, 205
Salvarsan, 135, 183, 286, 318
in chemotherapies, 135
patent for, 319
in serum therapy, 135
Sandoz, 481
Sanger, Frederick, 413
Sanger, Margaret, 241, 503
contraception and, 241, 333, 503, 505
sanitarianism, 86–8
Chartism and, 87
disease transmission and, 87
in Great Britain, 86
women’s role in, 95–7
‘sanitary ideal,’ 95
Sanitary Report (Chadwick), 86
sanitation programs
in Soviet Union, 362–3
sanatoriums
for tuberculosis, 177, 178, 179, 209, 294, 340–1, 352, 360, 363
sarcomas. See cancer
Sarett, Lewis, 319
SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), 436–7, 492
Sassoon, Siegfried, 263
Saunders, Dame Cecily, 445
Saunders, John Cunningham, 19
scarlet fever, 16, 173, 312, 313
‘Dick test’ for, 313
Schaudinn, Fritz, 183
schistosomiasis
in Egypt, 522
schizophrenia, 203, 243, 286, 289, 312, 379, 513
Schmiedeberg, Oswald, 142
Schoemaker, Jan, 294
School of Medicine, Paris, 41
schooling, medical, 20–5
Schou, Mogens, 475
Schultze, Walter, 329
Schwann, Theodor, 121, 185
Schwartz, Robert, 488
Science and the Practice of Medicine (Aitken), 232
Science of Cancerous Disease (Wolff), 188
Scotland
medical schools in, 21, 77, 158, 422
Scottish Women’s Hospitals organization, 254
Scottish Women’s Hospitals organization, 254
scrofula, 175, 176.
See also tuberculosis
S.E. Massengill, 293
Second World War. See WWII
Semashko, N.A., 357
Semmelweis, Ignaz Philipp, 10, 156
sepsis, 158.
See also antisepsis
serotonins, 475
serum therapy
Salvarsan as part of, 135
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. See SARS
Sharpey, William, 67
mesmerism and, 23
Shattuck, Lemuel, 92, 195
Shaw, George Bernard, 133, 211
Sheldon, William, 311
Shell shock
in World War I, 262–3
in World War II, 387–8
Sheppard-Towner Act, 325, 336
Shipman, Harold, 459
‘shock’ therapies, 290
Shumway, Norman, 489, 490
Shuttleworth, James Philip Kay, 90
Sickness Insurance Act (1947), 497
Sickness Insurance Bill, 218
Siemens, Hermann W., 330
Sigerist, Henry, 362
Silence of the Lambs, 532
Silent Spring (Carson), 395, 457, 472
Simon, John, 154, 191, 197, 226
Simpson, Sir James Young, 10, 156
Singer, Charles, 1
Singer, Peter, 398, 412
sleeping sickness, 135.
See also trypanosomiasis
Slim, William, 384
Sloggett, Sir Arthur, 253
Slyke, Donald Dexter van, 307
smallpox, 103
compulsory vaccinations for, in France, 194
incidence decline graph, 465
transmission of, 87
vaccine for, 125, 191, 367, 464
WHO and, 399, 466, 515
Smith, Adam, 212
Smith, Kline and French, 481
Smith Kline Beecham, 481, 485
Smith, Thomas Southwood, 90
The Snake Pit, 532
Snow, John, 103, 129, 192
social constructivism, 61
Social Democratic Workers’ Party, 218
Social Insurance Law (1928), 325
‘Social Question,’ 16, 17, 26
social security, 217–20
Poor Laws and, 218
Social Security Act (1935), 331, 346
Socialist Medical Association, 389
The Social System (Parsons), 343
Société de Biologie, 144
Société philanthropique de Paris, 217
Société Royale de la Médecine, 81
Society of Apothecaries, 144
‘soldier’s heart,’ 261
Somalia, 520
international medical development in, 520
South Africa
Medecins sans Frontieres in, 530
pharmaceutical industry in, 530
Souttar, Henry, 256, 294
Soviet Union, 236, 248, 356.
See also Russia
abortions in, 361
Bolsheviks in, 355, 357
childbirth programs in, 361–2
collectivization in, 355
doctor population in, 359
feldshers in, 353, 357, 360, 369
hospitals in, 441
malaria control in, 355
medical education, 460
medical equipment in, 467
medical practices in, 353–63
medical schools in, 359
military hospitals in, 353–4
Ministry of Health in, 482
Ministry of the Medical Industry in, 482
national insurance in, 358
pharmaceutical industry in, 482–3
public medical system formation in, 358
research institutes in, 357
sanitation programs in, 362–3
tuberculosis dispensaries in, 362
VD control programs in, 363
women’s rights in, 361
Spain
yellow fever in, 193
Spanish-American War, 231
spas, 288
specialized hospitals. See hospitals, specialized
specialized medicine, 271–4, 281, 438–9
in France, 273–4
in Germany, 274
in Great Britain, 273
in Nazi Germany, 375
women’s role in, 274
speculums
vaginal, 169
sphygmographs, 172, 174
sphygmomanometers, 306
Stanley, Sir Henry Morton, 149–233
Starling, Ernest Henry, 108, 259
statistics
population, 503
STDs (sexually transmitted diseases), 184.
See also prostitution; syphilis
clinics for, in Great Britain, 236, 249
syphilis, 135, 179–84
Steptoe, Patrick, 493, 506
stereoscopes
medical microscopes, 71
sterilization, 329
forced, in U.S., 329
Law for the Prevention of Genetically Diseased Offspring, 379
in Nazi Germany, 379
sterilization laws
in Denmark, 330
in Finland, 330
in Sweden, 330
Steroids, 406, 457
in athletic performance, 470
in food chain, 472
isolation of, 285
stethoscopes, 103
Laennec, René-Théophile, and, 42, 166
monaural, 44
Stevens, Rosemary, 443
Still, Andrew Taylor, 214
Stokes, Adrian, 258
Stoll, Arthur, 321
Stopes, Marie, 241, 242, 333
streptococci
classification of, 313–14
streptomycin, 245, 391, 414, 471
Strong, R.P., 258
Suez Canal, 105, 224, 393
sugar
metabolism research, 116, 118
Sullivan, Harry Stack, 286
sulphonamides
as bacteriostatics, 318, 320–1, 388, 450, 471
Sunday Times, 478
surgery, 293–5, 487–94.
See also hospitals, surgery; psychosurgery; surgery, heart; surgery, military; surgery, transplant
abdominal, 142
academies, in France, 38
anaesthesia use in, 155–6, 295
antisepsis system for, 157, 158
blood transfusions as part of, 293
for cancer (19th cent.), 188
carbolic acid used during, 157–8
Company of Surgeons, 30
ear, nose and throat, 492–3
in German medical schools, 142
in Great Britain, 30
gynaecological, 170
heart, 397, 487
military, 20
mortality rates factors for, 156
nurses and, 448
ophthalmic, 169
psychosurgery, 289–90
reconstructive, 493
tonsillectomies, 295
transplant, 488–92
before WWII, 487
surgery, heart, 487
Barnard, Christiaan, and, 489
developments in, 487–8
pacemakers and, 488
transplantation as part of, 489–90
surgery, military, 20
surgery, transplant, 488–92
azathioprine use after, 489, 490
CJD and, 492
cyclosporine use after, 399, 470, 490
organ, 492
Sweden
Sickness Insurance Act (1947), 497
sterilization laws in, 330
Switzerland
Bern, 159
medical schools in, 148
pharmaceutical industry in, 321
Sydenham, Thomas, 268, 316
Syme, James, 157
syphilis, 109, 135, 179–84, 187
acute, 181
antibodies for, 183
in Belgium, 342
G.P.I. as result of, 180
inherited, 181
penicillin and, 471
prostitution and, 179, 181–2
three stages of, 179–80
Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 310
Wassermann reaction for, 276
Tait, Robert Lawson, 157
Tanzania, 520
Tavistock Square Clinic, 241, 286
TB. See tuberculosis
Temkin, Owsei, 54, 65
‘test-tube babies,’ 506
thalidomide, 395, 471, 478–9
in Germany, 478
HIV/AIDS and, 396, 479
Theiler, Max, 244, 392, 463
Therapeutic Substances Act (1925), 321
Therapeutic Substances Act (1956), 479
therapeutic vaccines, 257
therapeutics, 286–93, 470–1.
See also drugs, new
antihistamines, 287
insulin, 287
leeches as, 286
penicillin, 287, 410, 470–2, 484
for psychiatry, 289
thermalism, 287–9
vaccines, 257
vitamins, 287, 318
therapies
chemotherapy, 135
‘moral,’ 198
for neurasthenia, 201
organ, 291
serum, 135
‘shock,’ 290
thermalism, 287–9
Institute d’Hydrologie, 288
thermometers
fever, 172
temperature charts for, 172
thermometry, 165
in physiological medicine, 165
Third Republic. See France
The Third Man (Greene), 472
Thomas, Hugh Owen, 257
Thomson, Allen, 67
vivisection experiments of, 67
Thomson, John, 77, 80
Thomsonianism, 137
Thuillier, Louis, 129
thyroxine, 285
Tijo, Joe Hin, 412
Titmuss, Richard, 495
tobacco products
in China, 528, 529
in developing nations, 528
in Finland, 432
in Great Britain, 429
health risks from, 528–9
World Health Assembly on, 529
Tofranil. See antidepressants
Tolpuddle Martyrs, 99
tomography
computerized, 398, 399, 469, 493
Tomorrow’s Doctors (GMC), 462
tonsillectomies, 295
Traite des Dégénérescences (Morel), 200
Treatise on Mediate Auscultation (Laennec), 42
Treaty of Versailles, 330
trench fever, 258
Tropical Diseases (Manson), 108, 160–235
tropical medicine, 228
London School of Tropical Medicine, 238, 252
military and, 231–3
quinine use in, 233
Rockefeller Foundation and, 371
Tropical Medicine (Manson), 153–234
trypanosomes, 135
sleeping sickness and, 135
trypanosomiasis, 287
tubercle bacillus, 128, 130, 133, 175, 177
tuberculosis, 17, 175, 313, 432
American Social Hygiene Association, 341
BCG, 338
cancer and, 187
death rates for, Great Britain (1841–1970), 425
deaths from, in Europe (1914–1945), 340–1
in developing nations, 522
DOTS strategy against, 522
drug resistant strains of, 407
immunization programs against, 338–43
incidence decline for, 249
intestinal, 175
Koch, Robert, discovery of, 175, 177, 187
lesions, 43
major features of, 175–6
management of, U.S., 341
MRC and, 259
National Tuberculosis Association, 341
notification, 340
pulmonary pthisis and, 175–8
sanatoriums for, 178
scrofula, 175
in Soviet Union, 362
tubercle bacillus as cause of, 128, 130, 133, 175, 177
U.S. mortality rates (1900–1990), 426
Tuke, Samuel, 198
Tuke, William, 198
Turner, Thomas, 21
Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 310
typhoid fever, 90, 131, 172, 173, 313
erysipelas and, 131
transmission of, 87
‘Typhoid Mary,’ 131, 196
typhus, 16, 172, 243
DDT and, 472
in Russia, 195
transmission of, 87, 110
Virchow’s investigation of, 92–3
UCH (University College Hospital), 21, 23
anesthesia experiments at, 23
UCL (University College London), 21, 119, 139, 145.
See also UCH
mesmerism within, 22, 23
UGC (University Grants Committee), 296
U.K. See Great Britain
UN (United Nations), 514
UNAIDS, 515
UNDP, 515
UNFPA, 515
UNICEF, 514
UN Children’s Fund. See UNICEF
UN Development Programme. See UNDP
UN Population Fund. See UNFPA
UNAIDS (United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS), 515
UNDP (UN Development Programme), 515
UNFPA (UN Population Fund), 515
in developing nations, 526
UNICEF (UN Children’s Fund), 514
WHO and, 516, 519, 521
United Nations. See UN
United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, 406
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. See UNAIDS
University College Hospital. See UCH
University College London. See UCL
University Grants Committee. See UGC
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 139
Upjohn, 481
U.S. (United States)
AMA in, 211, 215, 220, 292, 299
American Food and Drug Agency, 496
cancer foundations in, 188
chlorpromazine use in, 473
Civil War in, 148, 214
death rates in (1850–1900), 197
diphtheria immunization programs in, 338
disease prevention programs in, 337–8
drug control in, 292–3
FDA in, 293, 479
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic (1938), 293
Food and Drug Act (1906), 293
forced sterilization in, 329
GPs in, 271–2
Hill Burton Act (1946), 440
hospitals in, 151, 216, 269
immigration in, 230
Immigration Restriction Act (1924), 329
Lease Lend Act (1942), 389
Marine Hospital Service in, 196
Maternity and Infancy Act (1921), 331
measles/diphtheria mortality (1900–1970), 512
medical education reform in, 462
medical licensing in, 212, 214
medical schools in, 123, 298–9
National Board of Health in, 196
national insurance in, 220, 346–7
National Venereal Disease Control Act (1938), 342
nursing history in, 278–9
‘Paris period’ in, 48
proprietary schools in, 137–8, 214
prostitution in, 182
psychiatric hospitals in, 442
Public Health Service, 196
public healthcare in, 195–7
Sheppard-Towner Act, 325, 336
Social Security Act (1935), 331, 346
tuberculosis mortality (1900–1990), 426
U.S. Civil War, 148, 214
public healthcare and, influence on, 195–7
VD incidence during, 253
U.S. military
psychiatrists in, 387–8
U.S. Public Health Service, 196
U.S.S.R. See Soviet Union
vaccines
for BCG, 366
Children’s Vaccine Initiative, 516
cowpox, 132
for infectious diseases, 462
laws for, in Great Britain, 191
MMR, 533
for poliomyelitis, development of, 463
rabies, 126, 164, 233, 367
smallpox, 125, 191, 367, 464
therapeutic, 257
for yellow fever, 463
VAD (Voluntary Aid Detachments), 254
vaginal speculum. See speculums
Val-de-Grâce, Paris, 231
vancomycin, 444, 472
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, 307
VD (venereal diseases), 236, 249.
See also STDs; syphilis
CTCA and, 265
in Denmark, 342
French National League against the Venereal Peril, 342
in Great Britain, 342
management, in France, 342
in The Netherlands, 342
in Soviet Union, 363
during U.S. Civil War, 253
during WWI, 253, 341–2
during WWII, 385–7
Velpeau, Alfred, 62
venereal diseases. See VD
Ventôse, law of, 212
Verschuer, Otman von, 374
Vesalius, 112
Victoria, Queen, 9, 127–235, 237
childbirth for, 103, 209
Vienna University, 141
Vierodt, Karl, 172
Villemin, Jean Antoine, 104, 128
Villermé, Louis Renè, 92, 193
Vincent, George E., 367
Virchow, Rudolf, 10
on cellular pathology, 73, 92, 93, 100, 121, 122, 138, 140, 141, 170, 185, 195, 213, 215, 226, 258
Die Cellularpathologie, 76
virology, 463
viruses
Bell’s Palsy, 468
for cancer, 410–12
Coxsackie B,
vitalism, 47
vitamins, 243, 244, 287, 318
vivisection, 309
Thomson, Allen, and, 67
Voluntary Aid Detachments. See VAD
Von Behring, Emil, 133, 134
Waddington, Ivan, 54–6, 58
Wagner, Gerhard, 375, 379
Wakley, Thomas, 31, 34, 91, 99, 231
Chartism and, 99
Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 185, 186
Wall Street crash (1929), 323
war neurosis. See shell shock
Warren, John Collins, 155
wars. See also military medicine; WWI; WWII
Boer War, 256
Crimean War, 152
Franco-Prussian War, 47, 105, 142, 144
Spanish-American War, 231
U.S. Civil War, 104, 148, 214
WWI, 238, 250–66
WWII, 118
Wasserman, August von, 183
Wasserman reaction
for syphilis, 276
‘Wassermann test,’ 183
water
in Bangladesh, 524
in India, 524
International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade, 523
in North Yemen, 524
Watson, James, 395, 413
Watts, James, 289
Wealth of Nations (Smith), 212
Webb, Beatrice, 219
Webb, Sidney, 219
Weber, Max, 97
Webster, Charles, 498
Wedgewood, Josiah, 217
Weekes, Hampton, 63
Welch, William Henry, 123, 149
welfare, 323–7, 497–503
in Austria, 324
under government reorganization, 324
‘welfare state,’ 323
women under, 331–6
Wells, Thomas Spencer, 157
Wernicke, Carl, 142
“Western” medicine. See medicine
Westminster Review, 86
What is Race Hygiene (Siemens), 330
WHC (Woman’s Hospital Corps), 254
WHO (World Health Organization), 5, 245, 406, 514
Alma Ata Declaration, 286, 454, 486
in Asia, 518
in developing nations, 520
development programs, 523–4
goals for, 515
HIV/AIDS estimates, 434
HIV/AIDS management by, 515
International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade, 523–4
malaria control by, 523
nursing and, 449
palliative care and, 445–6
poliomyelitis vaccine development and, 464, 515
regional offices, 517
smallpox eradication and, 466, 515
UNICEF and, 516, 519, 521
World Health Assembly as part of, 518
whooping cough, 109, 173
Wilkins, Maurice, 395, 413
Williamson, George Scott, 348
Wilson, Woodrow, 264
Wolff, Jacob, 188
Woman’s Hospital Corps. See WHC
Wombell, James, 23
women
childbirth and, 209
in developing nations, 527
hysteria and, 201
lying-in hospitals for, 27
medical exploitation of, 27
in medical schools, 105, 147–8, 301
mortality rates for (1914–1945), 263
in Nazi Germany, 376
nursing and, 162
under sanitarianism, 95–7
in Soviet Union, 361
under welfare, 331–6
during WWI, medical roles for, 254
Women’s Consultation Bureau, 361
Woolf, Virginia, 201
workhouses, 89–90, 91–2, 264
workhouse infirmaries. See Poor Law infirmaries
workmen’s compensation, 230–1
World Bank, 514, 515
Bangladesh and, 518
criticism of, 518
HIV/AIDS and, 515
World Health Assembly, 518
malaria control and, 523
on tobacco products, 529
World Health Organization. See WHO
World Trade Organization. See WTO
World’s Fairs, 221
Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, 30
Wright, Almroth, 256
WTO (World Trade Organization), 530
Wundaerzte, 138, 140
Wunderlich, Carl A., 120–5, 165, 172
WWI (World War I), 238, 250–66
battlefronts during, 238, 252–63
disease prevention during, 258
field ambulances in, 255
French military loss during, 252
German military loss during, 252
homefronts during, 263–6
medical science before, 111
nursing hospitals before, 278
orthopaedic centres during, 257
Poor Laws during, 254
preventative medicine use during, 252
stretcher bearers during, 255
VD rates during, 253, 341–2
Western Front during, 238, 252
X-rays use after, 277–8
WWII (World War II), 380–9
bacteriology research after, 123
battlefronts during, 381–8
blood transfusions after, 388
German military medicine during, 382
homefronts during, 388–9
penicillin production during, 384–5
pharmaceutical industry before, 481
surgery before, 487
VD during, 385–7
Wynder, Ernst, 414, 428
X-rays, 109, 174
for dentistry, 173
for medical diagnosis, 110, 173–5, 469
post- WWI use, 277–8
Röntgen, Wilhelm, and, 173
Yalow, Rosalyn, 399, 467
yellow fever, 108, 222, 228
in Barcelona, 193
in Cadiz, 193
in Latin America, 372
vaccine for, 463
Yen, James Y.C., 373
York Retreat, 198
Your Life in Their Hands, 519–31
Yugoslavia
BCG vaccinations in, 366
Zakrzewska, Marie, 147
Zola, Émile, 200
Zurich, University of, 148