Abkhaz-Georgian war, 335
Afghanistan
insurgency against Soviet occupation, 80, 231
insurgency against U.S. occupation, 352–3, 369
Åkerström, Malin, 233
Algeria
Civil War, 99, 170, 234, 235
War of Independence, 114, 134, 189, 191, 230, 346
allegiance. See noncombatants
alliance
defined in civil war context, 383
definition, 14
empirical support for, 386
as link between the elite and local levels, 365, 385–6
as mechanism guiding civil war violence, 381–6
pattern of occurrence in civil war, 383–4
Anderson, David, 35, 188, 335
Anderson, Truman, 8, 104, 117, 125, 151, 156, 159, 161, 164, 180, 230, 342, 410
Angola, 189, 230
Apter, David, 8
archives, for study of civil war, 393
Arendt, Hannah, 6, 20, 30, 151, 175, 204, 218, 339, 358, 389
Aristotle, 18
Armenian-Azerbaijani war, 335
Augustine, 218
Azam, Paul, 48, 58, 73
Bandura, Albert, 57, 193, 339
Bangladesh, 406
War of Independence, 89, 128, 139, 155, 166–7, 232
Barth, Fredrik, 36
Bartov, Omer, 8
Bass, Gary, 16
Bauer, Yehuda, 34
Bayly, C. A., 47
Beaufre, André, 66, 67, 140, 217
Bentham, Jeremy, 141
Binford, Leigh, 21, 51, 150, 155, 169, 189, 191, 224, 228, 236, 343
Black-Michaud, Jacob, 21, 50, 71
Blaufarb, Douglas S., 106, 109, 133, 163, 175, 239, 342
Bobbio, Norberto, 17, 53, 65, 377
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 4, 43, 44, 150, 234, 376
Bosnian Civil War, 36, 82, 96, 350, 373
Bourdieu, Pierre, 19
Bourgois, Philippe, 36, 57, 347
Bouthoul, Gaston, 18, 53, 331
Braud, Philippe, 19
Brecht, Bertold, 82
Brovkin, Vladimir, 21, 22, 29, 37, 43, 93, 106, 111, 153, 240, 343, 371
Brown, Michael F., 44, 47, 90, 159, 164, 168, 236, 402, 403
Brubaker, Rogers, 5, 35, 51, 75
Burke, Edmund, 55
Burma
Kachin insurgency, 10, 213
Karen insurgency, 239
Cambodian Civil War, 64–5, 352
Carpenter, Charli R., 62
Castro, Fidel, 133
Chacón, Mario, 74, 329
Chalk, Frank, 30, 31
Chechen Civil War, 99, 164, 165, 170, 362
China, 353
Civil War, 126, 130, 134, 170
Cultural Revolution, 349, 361–2
Japanese occupation in World War II, 191, 213, 346
Chwe, Michael Suk-Young, 382
civil war
ambiguities in interpreting, 365–7
complexity due to local factors, 372
definition, 5, 18
as an endogenous process, 389–90
civil war violence
agency behind, 364–5, 376–81
as analytically distinct from civil war, 20
brutality of, 3, 52–5
causes
brutalization, 55–8
Hobbseian breakdown, 55–62, 70–3, 289–90
irregular warfare, 66–70, 83–5, 290
and manifestations of violence, 4–5
medievalization, 62, 290
revenge, 58–61, 246
Schmittian polarization, 64–6, 74–83, 290, 351
security dilemma, 61, 290
trangression, 73–4, 290. See also civil war violence, and laws of war
violence as endogenous to the war, 82–3
as constrained by norm of positive reciprocity, 246, 307
cross-national variation in, 206–7
interactions between elite and local levels, 367–73
intimacy, 330–2
as dark face of social capital, 14, 332, 351–8
as root of civil war’s nature, 333–4
and laws of war, 62–4
as opposed to other types of violence, 31
study of
incorporating individuals, 390
inference biases, 77
variation in, 1–3
theorizing about, 7–9
civilian support
assumptions, 101–4
attitudinal conceptualization, 92–100
conceptualized as observed behavior, 100–1
Clastres, Pierre, 383
Clausewitz, Carl von, 7, 16
cleavage
definition, 14
disjunction between micro and macro levels, 390–1
Coleman, James, 26, 113, 127, 151
collaboration, 93, 118, 122, 141, 344
allocation of, 111–15
as cause of control, 111–12
as caused by control, 138
forms of, 104–6
institutions. See commitees; militias
as survival tactic, 115–17
Collier, George, 2, 39, 377
Collier, Paul, 16, 74, 79, 287, 377, 386
Colombia
Civil War, 184, 188, 191, 214–15, 228, 237–8, 379
La Violencia, 161–2, 223, 380
Colson, Charles, 115
committees, as institution of collaboration, 109–10
Congo-Brazzaville, 58
Conrad, Joseph, 33
control
changes in, 213–18
coding, 421
as constrained by manpower, 138–41
dynamics of full control, 217–18
violence, 220–2
incomplete, 240
measurement, 210–13
no control, 223–4
shared, 243
as signal of credibility, 126–8
understood in geographic terms, 133–7
zones of control defined, 196, 211–13
Converse, Philip, 43
Coser, Lewis A., 33, 337
Crozier, Brian, 53, 153, 176, 216, 217, 342
Dale, Catherine, 36, 372, 380, 389
De Figueiredo, Rui J. P., Jr., 61
de Saint-Exupéry, Antoine, 334
de Staël, Germaine, 1, 34, 53, 130, 177, 331
defection
informing, 105–6
noncompliance, 104
switching sides, 106
Degregori, Carlos Iván, 8, 71, 96, 97, 113, 125, 126, 148, 190, 225, 229, 243, 346, 375
denunciation, 176–83
ample supply of, 338
in democracies, 358–60
as distinct from collaboration, 180
in ethnic civil war, 181–3
counterdenunciation, 194–5
cross-checking, 186–7
false denunciation, 179
managing, 183–9
forms of, 180–1
glut in areas of full control, 221–2
as key mechanism underlying civil war violence, 362–3
motivations behind, 178–9, 337–51
perjorative terms associated with, 177
political economy of, 192–5
sociology of, 336–43
by spouses, 347–8
under totalitarian regimes, 362
Dominican Republic, insurgency against U.S. occupation, 39, 135, 157
Douglass, William, 33
Downes, Alexander, 6, 35, 48, 69, 74, 147
Durkheim, Emile, 5, 34, 37, 48, 58
Earle, Timothy, 47, 67
East Timor, insurgency against Indonesian occupation, 382
Eckstein, Harry, 174, 229
El Salvador Civil War, 39, 81, 120, 153, 156, 180, 207, 211–12, 217, 347
Elbadawi, Ibrahim, 16
Ellul, Jacques, 19
Elster, Jon, 298, 303, 354
Engels, Friedrich, 385
English Civil War, 227, 374
Enzensberger, Hans Magnus, 40, 96, 352, 380
Ermakoff, Ivan, 46, 47
Esteban, J., 64
Ethiopian Civil War, 159
Fearon, James, 16, 48, 74, 113, 132, 138, 278, 287, 386
Fein, Helen, 3, 23, 26
fence-sitting, 226–9
manipulating expectations as means to limit, 229–31
violence as a means to limit, 231–2
Fenoglio, Beppe, 96, 117, 127, 138, 158, 177, 227, 379
Fernández, Eduardo, 44, 47, 90, 159, 164, 168, 236, 402, 403
fifth columnists, 84
Finnish Civil War, 239
Foucault, Michel, 218
France
French Revolution, 80, 368
German occupation in World War II, 97, 114, 344–5
Vendée War, 119–20
Freud, Sigmund, 354
Friedrich, Carl J., 6, 19, 23, 82, 115, 133, 138, 338
Frijda, Nico, 58, 71, 337, 354, 360
Fulbecke, William, 354
Furet, François, 8
Galtung, Johan, 19
Gambetta, Diego, 26, 136, 190, 356, 394
Geertz, Clifford, 42
Genschel, Philipp, 58, 78
Germany, 341
as occupier in World War II, 139–40, 151–2, 155
Girard, René, 72, 78
Gould, Roger, 9, 71, 194, 290, 354, 363, 371, 394
Greece, 416, 417, 418
Almopia, 310–14
Argolid
description, 249–54
during civil war, 254–66
economic profile, 252–3
geographical distribution of settlements, 249–52
patterns of control, 275–8
prewar political profile, 254
religious and ethnic profile, 253–4
violence, 266–74
Civil War, 102, 121–2, 131–2, 181, 194, 208, 215–16, 225–6, 234, 248–9, 340, 366–7, 376
German occupation in World War II, 150, 168, 169
Peloponnesian War, 8, 218
Green, Linda, 2, 162, 178, 190, 191, 409
Greer, Donald, 2, 20
Grossman, Dave, 26, 46, 69, 160, 235, 332
Grotius, 19
Guatemalan Civil War, 83, 98, 100, 107, 108, 136–7, 154, 159, 168, 185, 226, 229, 345, 346, 355, 368, 381
Guevara, Ernesto “Che,” 7, 9, 26, 84, 145
Guha, Ranajit, 37, 87
Guinea-Bissau, 105
Gulden, Timothy, 48, 136
Gumz, Jonathan E., 8, 152
Gurr, Ted Robert, 16, 22, 29, 150, 286, 339
Hardin, Russell, 61, 382
Harff, Barbara, 6
Harkavy, Robert, 11, 20, 39, 48, 54, 64, 83
Harkis, 80
Hawkins, Gordon J., 141
hearts and minds, 94
Hechter, Michael, 141, 155, 340, 356
Heer, Hannes, 8, 17, 26, 163, 217, 342
Henderson, James D., 2
Héritier, Françoise, 6
Hitler, Adolf, 47, 140, 338
Hobbes, Thomas, 19, 52, 55, 334, 387, 388
Hobsbawm, Eric, 43, 53, 394, 402, 408
Hoeffler, Anke, 48, 58, 73, 377, 386
Horowitz, Donald, 20, 23, 24, 64, 331, 354, 377, 382
Horton, Lynn, 17, 39, 105, 113, 123, 124, 136, 138, 153, 159, 187, 219, 221, 224, 236, 342, 343, 404
Hull, Isabel V., 8
Hume, David, 58, 354
Hussein, Saddam, 194
ideology, as determinant of violence, 44–6
Ignatieff, Michael, 33, 61, 68, 331, 335, 354, 380
India, Sikh insurgency, 23, 187
indiscriminate violence, 141–5, 146–72, 191
counterproductivity of, 151–3, 154–6
as deterrence, 149–50
emotional reactions to, 153–4
and human rights norms, 171
incidence of, 147–8
individual motivations behind, 160–1
lack of information and, 148–9
and power asymmetries, 167–71
protection against as selective incentive, 157–8
as result of combatant ignorance, 162–5
as result of institutional distortions, 165–7
Indonesia
anticommunist massacres, 40, 403
war in West Kalimantan, 25
instrumental violence, 26
insurgency, as alternate state building, 217–18
Iraq, insurgency against U.S. occupation, 98, 115, 133, 173, 184, 189, 338
irregular war, 87–9
as cause of brutality in civil war. See civil war violence, causes, irregular warfare
defined with respect to conventional war, 66–8
identification problem, 89–91
Italy, 127
German occupation in World War II, 156, 188
occupation by France under Napoleon, 376
Janowitz, Morris, 46
Jonassohn, Kurt, 30, 31, 36
Jones, Adrian, 9, 107, 122, 128, 153, 164, 219
judicial sources, using, 393–4
Kakar, Sudhir, 25, 36, 331, 411
Kaldor, Mary, 40, 377, 380
Kalyvas, Stathis, 8, 31, 40, 79, 85, 91, 97, 107, 109, 149, 161, 171, 182, 211, 221, 239, 240, 314, 329, 342, 370, 380, 382, 384
Kaufman, Stuart J., 64
Kaufmann, Chaim, 34, 78, 91, 379
Keane, John, 6, 55
Keen, David, 58, 151, 153, 371, 377, 380
Kenya, Mau Mau Rebellion, 35, 156, 161, 182, 188, 242, 335
Kerry, John, 89, 160
Khan, Amadu Wurie, 36
Kitson, Frank, 89, 95, 96, 103, 106, 107, 110, 133, 136, 153, 163, 184, 186, 193, 211, 228
Knight, Jonathan, 49, 51
Kocher, Matthew, 132, 133, 136, 139, 211, 329
Korean War, 129
Kosovo War, 162, 378
Krane, Dale A., 43, 115, 151, 153
Krueger, Alan, 286
Laitin, David, 5, 16, 35, 48, 51, 74, 75, 113, 132, 138, 278, 287, 386
Laqueur, Walter, 61, 66, 84, 91, 127, 131, 133, 152, 153, 154, 165, 169, 170, 217, 235
Lawrence, T. E., 163
Lebanese Civil War, 59, 79
Leites, Nathan, 11, 16, 34, 104, 115, 149, 155, 160, 163, 228, 231
Lenin, Vladimir, 64, 184, 377
levels of analysis, 11
Liberian Civil War, 25, 59, 154, 345
Lichbach, Mark Irving, 93, 100, 102, 127, 144, 155
Lincoln, Abraham, 33, 57, 61, 76
Lipset, Seymour M., 64, 382, 386
local cleavage, 374–6
ambiguities of, 370
capacity for subverting master cleavage, 375–6
as endogenous to conflict, 375
implications for group or ethnic conflict, 372–3
importance, 386
pre-existing, 375
tendency of scholars to overlook, 373–4, 379–80
Loizos, Peter, 59, 60, 71, 82, 161, 372, 380
Lubkemann, Stephen C., 369
Machiavelli, 18, 128, 153, 379, 383
Mackenzie, S. P., 37, 46, 97
Malaya
Japanese occupation in World War II, 79
uprising against British, 88, 174–5, 213–14
Maleckova, Jitka, 286
Malefakis, Edward, 19, 53, 75, 103
Mallin, Jay, 23, 149, 191, 238, 242
Mao Zedong, 26, 38, 69, 84, 94, 114, 132, 134, 349, 361, 362, 385
Martin, Jean-Clément, 8, 37, 64, 369
Martin, JoAnn, 19, 46
Mason, T. David, 43, 108, 115, 151, 153, 163
master cleavage, 14, 384
Mazower, Mark, 8, 26, 43, 152, 168, 382, 393
McCoubrey, Hilaire, 63
methodological implications, 392
Mexico, 72, 220, 348–9
Miguel, Edward, 248
Milgram, Stanley, 332
militias, as institution of collaboration, 107–9
Molnar, Andrew R., 9, 23, 100, 107, 122, 128, 152, 153, 164, 175, 219
Montaigne, Michel de, 3, 53
Moore, Barrington, 43, 143
Moore, Robert, 62
Mozambique, 38, 112, 133, 137–8, 221, 223–4, 369
Mueller, John, 21, 54, 57, 68, 72, 96, 103, 335, 377
Nabulsi, Karma, 19, 63, 67
Nagengast, Carole, 42
Namibia, War of Independence, 212, 225
Naumann, Klaus, 8, 163
Nepal, 211, 239
Nettle, Daniel, 354
Neuman, Stephanie, 11, 20, 39, 48, 54, 64, 83
Nicaragua
Civil War 1927–1933, 149
Civil War 1981–1990, 3–4, 96, 138
Nietzche, Friedrich, 338
Nigeria, Biafran War, 117, 135
Nino, Carlos Santiago, 16
noncombatants
endogeneity of allegiance to control, 3–4
ties to combatants, 158–60
Nordlinger, Eric, 64
Nordstrom, Carolyn, 2, 8, 9, 19, 29, 41, 42, 45, 46, 48, 50, 71, 96, 117, 136, 137, 187, 208, 221, 223, 228, 235, 242, 343, 371
Northern Ireland
Civil War, 95, 130, 343–4, 357
secessionist campaign, 2, 7, 39, 125, 159–60, 176, 334–5, 341–2, 372
description of fighters, 102
Norway, 158
O’Neill, Bard E., 92, 100, 153
O’Neill, Onora, 26
oral sources, using, 395–403
Orwell, George, 43
Paget, Julian, 9, 78, 103, 106, 109, 144, 149, 153, 163, 165, 182, 216, 217, 219, 227
Palestine
First and Second Intifada, 171
Palestinian uprising, 4–5, 344, 405, 408
Papua New Guinea, 378
Payne, Stanley, 53, 65, 377
Perry, Elizabeth, 47, 80
Peru, Shining Path insurgency, 25, 125, 219, 229, 346, 375
Petersen, Roger, 23, 24, 35, 39, 95, 100, 153, 158, 246, 355
Pfaffenberger, Bryan, 75, 219
Philippines, 239
Huk rebellion, 242
insurgency against the U.S., 101, 189, 231
Japanese occupation in World War II, 129, 186, 367–8
Philippines insurgency, 121, 221, 339
Plato, 18, 330, 333, 334
Poland, German occupation in World War II, 142–4
policy implications, 391
Posen, Barry, 61, 377, 382
Posner, Daniel, 248
Przeworski, Adam, 30, 93, 247
Pye, Lucian, 90, 149, 170, 174
Ranzato, Gabriele, 10, 16, 17, 29, 78, 85, 91, 374, 377
Ray, D., 64
recruitment, 95–100, 125–6
research design, microcomparative test, 247–8
Rhodesia. See Zimbabwe
Richards, Paul, 8, 25, 28, 40, 44, 53, 58, 60, 61, 73, 96, 109, 149, 153, 224, 235, 343, 371, 379, 410
riots, 23, 48
Robben, Antonius C. G. M., 37, 51, 403, 405, 409
Rokkan, Stein, 64, 382, 386
Ron, James, 2, 8, 148, 223, 335, 380
Rothenberg, Gunther, 84
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 357, 377
Roy, Olivier, 78, 80, 384
Rubio, Mauricio, 35, 46, 47, 50, 70, 78, 95, 96, 97, 107, 224, 227
Russia. See also Soviet Union
Civil War, 80, 240, 343
Rwanda, 373
Salamanca Núñez, Camila, 329
Sambanis, Nicholas, 16, 48
Sanchez Cuenca, Ignacio, 171
Sartori, Giovanni, 9, 74
Schelling, Thomas, 337
Schlichte, Klaus, 48, 58, 61, 78
Schmid, Alex, 23, 30
Schmitt, Carl, 17, 38, 43, 52, 64, 67, 68, 84, 92, 151, 377, 380, 386, 388
Schroeder, Michael J., 8, 25, 91, 149, 153, 342, 370, 378, 382, 394
Schulte, Theo J., 8
Scott, James C., 101, 371, 410
Seidman, Michael, 113, 370
selective violence
creating a perception of credible selection, 190–2
gathering information necessary for, 174–6
high cost as cause of indiscriminate violence, 165
as joint process, 173–4
and local delegation, 183–7
misidentified as indiscriminate, 161–2
model, 195–209
caveats, 207–8
profiling, 187–8
role of defection, 196–7
role of denunciation, 197–202
theory of, 12–13, 320
evidence from ethnographies and local histories, 323–8
hypothesis 1, 169, 273–4, 287
hypothesis 2, 204, 220–2, 287, 291, 299, 315, 319, 321, 322, 323, 328
hypothesis 3, 204, 223–4, 274, 288, 319, 324
hypothesis 4, 204, 232–40, 278–80, 287–8, 292–3, 297–299, 313, 315, 318, 319, 321, 328
hypothesis 5, 204, 232, 240–3, 278, 288, 293–7, 314, 322, 328
intimacy, 336
mispredictions, 302–9
proposition 1, 132, 258–9
proposition 2, 144
Sémelin, Jacques, 23, 26
Sen, Amartya, 93
Sender Barayón, Ramon, 24, 52, 59, 75, 180, 334, 336, 342, 347, 395, 404
Shepherd, Ben, 8, 140, 152
Sierra Leone, 28, 53, 58, 60, 62, 235, 410
Simmel, Georg, 78, 353, 356
Skocpol, Theda, 16, 113, 355
Sluka, Jeffrey A., 9, 37, 41, 47, 100, 159, 407
Smith, Adam, 3, 53, 233, 354
Sofsky, Wolfgang, 6, 20
Somali Civil War, 58, 96
Sorel, Georges, 6, 19
Soviet Union, 361
German occupation in World War II, 118, 120, 128–9, 222–3, 237
Spain
Basque secessionist campaign, 335, 355
Civil War, 29, 66, 120, 129–30, 180, 181–2, 347, 377–8
French occupation under Napoleon, 4, 136
Peninsular War. See French occupation under Napoleon
Spanish Inquisition, 340–1, 360
Spencer, Jonathan, 2, 33, 148, 336, 343, 372, 383
Sri Lanka, 45, 148, 189, 191, 336, 345, 371–2
Stalin, Joseph, 186, 336, 361
Stark, Rodney, 45, 46
Straus, Scott, 3, 20, 23, 30, 35, 360
Suárez-Orozco, Marcelo, 51, 403
Sudan, second civil war, 113, 159
Tajikistan, 384
Tambiah, Stanley J., 47, 360, 371
Tanham, George K., 133, 239, 342
Tarrow, Sidney G., 22
Teune, Henry, 247
Thornton, Thomas P., 114, 143
Thucydides, 8, 9, 18, 53, 55, 57, 78, 116, 188, 218, 331, 333, 337, 379, 380, 383, 388
Tilly, Charles, 11, 19, 22, 24, 43, 47, 54, 80, 101, 124, 166, 220, 247, 371
Tishkov, Valery, 34, 36, 48, 53, 68, 82, 95, 96, 103, 154, 362, 371
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 174, 354, 379
Tong, James, 132, 287
torture, as means of acquiring information, 176
Trinquier, Roger, 53, 89, 91, 92, 94, 108, 133, 163, 174, 193, 213, 216, 227
Trotsky, Leon, 26, 84, 385
Tullock, Gordon, 229
Turkey, Kurdish insurgency, 108
Ugandan Civil War, 79
Ukraine, German occupation in World War II, 230
United States of America
Civil War, 83–4, 108, 116, 122, 134, 226, 227–8, 232, 243–4, 343, 374, 394, 405
American Revolution, 67, 96, 104, 116, 118
urban romanticism, 40
Valentino, Benjamin, 3, 6, 21, 23, 35, 48, 69, 83, 147, 194
van Creveld, Martin, 61, 63, 69, 92, 331
Van Evera, Stephen, 78
Vargas Llosa, Mario, 25, 140, 153, 370, 402
Varshney, Ashutosh, 2, 3, 23, 35, 48, 287, 371, 377
Veyne, Paul, 248, 411
Vietnam War, 81, 90, 93–4, 97, 101, 110, 114, 115, 118–19, 120–1, 123, 125, 127, 139, 140, 144, 162–3, 164, 165–6, 169, 179, 191, 193, 214, 228–9, 230–1, 236–7, 241, 242, 243, 346, 356, 381
Phoenix program, 169, 184, 186, 189, 190, 345
violence
bloodless convention, 35
coercive, 27
data problems, 48–51
defining, 20
as a deterrent, 28
as an expressive act, 25
genocide, 30
identity as endogenous to violence, 47
instrumental violence, 28
as madness, 33–4
mutilation, 28
partisan bias, 38
as a process, 22
reciprocal extermination, 30–1
selective violence, 144–5
state terror, 30
study of, 38
urban bias, 48
in war and peace, 22–3
violence in civil wars. See civil war violence
Wallensteen, Peter, 16
Walter, Barbara, 16
Walter, Eugene V., 9, 26, 143
Wantchekon, Leonard, 248
Warren, Kay B., 2
Watanabe, John, 2
Weber, Max, 218
Weingast, Barry R., 61
Weinstein, Jeremy, 3, 8, 35, 48, 61, 195
White, Nigel, 63
Wickham-Crowley, Timothy P., 16, 43, 47, 48, 66, 69, 70, 92, 95, 96, 127, 142, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154, 157, 179, 216, 218, 220, 239, 342–3, 371
Wilkinson, Steven I., 2, 3, 23, 35, 48
Wintrobe, Ronald, 114, 115
Wolf, Charles, Jr., 11, 16, 34, 104, 115, 149, 155, 160, 163, 228, 231
Wood, Elisabeth Jean, 41, 51, 81, 96, 100, 103, 128, 153, 189, 193, 207, 218, 238, 343
Yugoslavia, 335. See also Bosnian Civil War; Kosovo War
Zimbabwe/Rhodesia Civil War, 115, 135, 139
Zimring, Franklin E., 141
Zulaika, Joseba, 8, 33, 60, 81, 91, 97, 105, 125, 148, 177, 189, 235, 334, 335, 352, 355, 378