References for maps, figures, or tables are set in italics.
accommodation: narratives of, 1, 2, 3
acculturation: narratives of, 1, 2, 3. See also assimilation
administration. See Guangxi, administration of
agricultural and economic life. See under Guangxi province
ai隘 (strategic pass): symbol for, 130
Ai Mu艾穆 (jr. 1558), 174
almanacs. See encyclopedias and almanacs
an fu shi安撫使 (pacification commissioner), 61. See also native chieftains
Anlong Si安隆司: tax quota for, 73
Annam安南: annexation of, 23, 37, 64, 76, 91, 158; in early Chinese history, 7, 10; mercury in, 49; Ming borders with, 8, 100, 101; as Ming concern, 127; and Siming Fu, 75, 76, 77, 89
Anping Zhou安平州: size of, 68
assimilation (tong hua): narratives of, 1, 2, 3, 205; rhetoric of, 184, 195, 196–97. See also acculturation; civilization; gui hua; xiang hua
autonomous administrative areas (zi zhi qu), 105, 199–200
Ayuwang阿育王, Mount (Zhejiang), 173
Ba : as category, 191
Bai Gui白圭 (1419–75), 160
bai miao tu百苗圖. See miao albums
Baiyue百越: as category, 195
Baman八蠻. See Eight Man
bandits and banditry, 118; in Bazhai, 101; along Fu River, 25, 135; in Gutian, 122–25; in Huaiyuan, 106–07; as persistent problems, 91, 93, 126; in Rattan Gorge, 117–22; sources of, 112–17. See also disorder
Banyizhongnü斑衣種女: as category, 142, 143, 149, 191
bao堡 (military fort): symbol for, 130
bao保 (“watch”) and bao jia保甲 (“watch and tithing”), 38
Bao Ruji包汝楫 (js. 1607): Record of Things Heard in Guizhou (Nan zhong ji wen南中紀聞), 166
“barbaric people” (ye man ren), 197
Barth, Fredrik, 5
Bazhai八寨, 98, 101–102, 118
bei備 (defense): Fan Zhongyan on, 163
ben xin本心 (disposition): of native people, 138
bi ji筆記 (informal jottings), 14, 21, 176. See also sources
bian min編民 (registered subjects), 107. See also min
bie zhong別種 (variant), 146, 147
Bin Zhou賓州 (Liuzhou): as campaign base, 87; drought and plague in, 50
Bing嶐: as category, 142, 191; depictions of, 147
Bo僰: as category, 141
Bobai博白 county (Wuzhou): decline of population in, 110
Book of Poetry (Shi jing), 103
border zones. See borderlands
borderland, southern: expansion as demarcation and categorization in, 5, 8–9; historical narratives of, 1–4; in Ming dynasty, 8, 18; perceived boundaries between “central plains” and, 47; perils of (see perils); in Qing dynasty, 186–90; sources on, 166–67; as term, 18. See also Guangdong; Guangxi; Guizhou; Huguang; Sichuan; Yunnan
borderlands: construction of boundaries as history of, 5, 11–13, 205–206; northern versus southern, 8, 18, 160, 163–64; sources on, 165–70; and state-building, 6–7, 185. See also frontiers
boundaries: dialectics of, 208; expansion as construction of, 5, 11–13, 205–206; history as transformation of, 19, 204–206; Ming construction of, 8–9, 11–13; state-building and formation of, 6–7, 185. See also “Chinese” and “non-Chinese”; “Han” and “non-Han”; min and man yi
Bozhou播州 (Sichuan), 72, 75, 102
Brook, Timothy, 170, 182
bu zheng shi si布政使司 (provincial administration commission), 29, 31
bu zu部族 (“tribes”), 198
Buyi布依: as “minority nationality,” 204
Cahill, James, 179
Caijia蔡家: as category, 141
Cangwu蒼梧 county (Wuzhou): floods in, 49–50
Cao Bang高平 (Annam), 100
Cao Shuji曹樹基, 44n35
Cao Xuequan曹學佺 (1574–1646): Descriptions of Famous Sites of Guangxi (Guangxi ming sheng zhi廣西名勝志), 175
cartographic symbols, 130, 132. See also maps
Cen Bao岑豹, 82n29
Cen Bin岑鑌, 82–83
Cen Boyan岑伯顏, 82
Cen Hanzhong岑漢忠, 82
Cen Jian岑鑑, 85
Cen Jixiang岑繼祥, 100
Cen Jun岑濬, 86
Cen Langguang岑郎廣, 82
Cen Meng岑猛 (1490–1526), 73, 92, 95; alleged crimes of, 86–87; demise of, 88; demotion of, 86; frightful of, 89; rebellion of former headmen of, 96; reinstatement of son of, 97. See also Cens (Tianzhou); Tianzhou
Cen Peng岑彭 (d. 35 CE), 70
Cen Pu岑溥, 85–86
Cen Shao岑紹, 85
Cen Shaoxun岑紹勛, 102
Cen Yan岑顏, 82n29
Cen Ye岑業, 71
Cen Ying岑瑛 (d. 1478), 82–84, 95. See also Sien (Fu)
Cen Yong岑鏞, 85
Cen Yongchang岑永昌, 82
Cen Yunhan岑雲漢, 102–103
Cens岑: of Guangxi, 74–75; of Guishun Zhou, 103; of Right River region, 82–90, 100–101; of Sicheng Zhou, 70; of Sien (Fu), 83
Cens (Tianzhou), 83; alliance between Macs (Cao Bang) and, 103; military prowess of, 89; in Qing dynasty, 187; transgressions of, 96; in Xunzhou, 120. See also Cen Meng; Tianzhou
censuses, population, 200–201
“central dominion” (zhong guo): as term, 17; under Zhou dynasty, 8. See also “China”
Central Guard中衛 (Guilin), 113
Central Institute (University) of Nationalities中央民族學院(大學), 200
“central plains” (zhong yuan; zhong zhou): perceived boundaries between southern borderland and, 47; as term, 17
centrality, concept of: in Shang and Zhou dynasties, 8
centralizing state. See state, centralizing
Cenxi岑溪 county (Wuzhou): as center of violence, 118; maps of, 132, 132–34; “Lang” of, 188, 189
Chang’an Zhen長安鎮 (Liuzhou): tigers in, 52
chao巢 (native settlements), 107, 119, 128, 130
charity schools (yi xue). See under schools
Chen Jian陳鑑 (js. 1607), 53–54. See also Gazetteer of Wuzhou Prefecture
Chen Jin陳金 (1446–1528), 39, 121, 135
Chen Lian陳璉 (1370–1454), 27–28
Chen Sui陳璲 (1457–1504), 64, 73, 90
Chen Xian陳賢, 48
Chen Yongbin陳用賓 (js. 1571): Annotated Illustrations of the non-Chinese in Yunnan (Yunnan zhu yi tu shuo雲南諸夷圖說), 166
Cheng郕, Prince of, 160. See also Jingtai emperor
Cheng Tinggong程廷珙 (js. 1475), 142–43. See also General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1493)
Cheng Zhengyi程正誼 (js. 1571): Notes on the non-Chinese Natives in Sichuan (Quan Shu tu yi kao全蜀土夷考), 166
Chens陳 (Quan Zhou), 46
chi勑 patents: for native chieftains, 62
Chiang Kai-shek蔣介石 (1888–1975): on unity of Chinese people in China’s Destiny, 193
chieftain system. See native chieftaincy, institution of
chieftains. See native chieftains
“China” (Zhongguo): (national) history of, xiii, 4, 184; as term, 17; transformation of boundaries as history of, 204–206. See also “central dominion”; nation-state, making of
China, People’s Republic of. See People’s Republic of China
“Chinese” (hua; huaxia; xia): as category, 3, 17; as civilization, 2, 4; construction of boundaries as history of, 204–206, 208; and “Han,” 3, 192–93, 195; as identity, xiii, 206; Ming dynasty as, 10; as nation (Zhonghua min zu), xiii, 4, 193–95, 198. See also “Han”; min zu
“Chinese” and “non-Chinese”: boundaries between, 3, 157, 159–70, 181–83, 205; as conceptual binary, 3, 10; dialectical relationship between, 208. See also “Han” and “non-Han”; markers; min and man yi; “non-Chinese”
Chinese Communist Party, 184, 185; on “minority nationalities,” 198–202. See also People’s Republic of China
Chinese state. See state, centralizing
“Chineseness”: as historical, 204–205; as situational, xiii
Chongshan Xian崇善縣: conversion of, 31
chu楚 (“civilized”), 25
city walls, 33n19
civilian militias (min bing; min zhuang), 38–39
civilians. See min
civilization: “current” of, 28; efforts on, 34, 71–72, 96; rhetoric of, 57, 94, 108, 140, 182, 185, 187; through wen jiao, 103, 104, 158, 162. See also assimilation; enlightenment
clans, notable, 46. See also native clans
climate. See under Guangxi, geography of
Collected Statutes of the Ming (Ming hui dian), 14, 71
colonization, 1, 5. See also expansion
commercialization. See economy, commercialization of
“Common Guidelines” (Gong tong gang ling), 199
confrontation: narratives of, 1–2, 3, 205
Confucian schools. See under schools
“Constitution of the Chinese Soviet Republic,” 199
courier stations (yi ), 64, 127, 130. See also postal relay stations
Crossley, Pamela Kyle, 4, 186, 188
cultural hierarchy, assumption of, 185
customs. See under markers
da ge答歌, custom of, 181. See also markers
Da Ming yi tong zhi See Union Gazetteer of the Great Ming
da zheng大征 (large-scale expedition), concept of, 126
Dai Yao戴燿 (js. 1568), 72
Daliang大良: as category, 142, 143, 149, 191; as type of Yao, 154
Dan蛋 /蜑: as category, 141, 142, 143, 191
Dàn狚: as category, 142, 144, 191; in Huaiyuan, 147, 181
dao shui刀稅 (“sword tax”), 149
dao xue道學. See Learning of the Way
Dateng Xia大藤峽. See Rattan Gorge
Datong大同 defense area (Shanxi), 159
Daxin大新 county, 70
de Bary, Wm. Theodore, 182
Deng Tingzan鄧廷瓚 (1430–1500), 91, 124
Di狄: as category, 8, 142, 144
Di氐: as category, 167, 168, 169. See also hybrid creatures
di li地理 (geography; “coherence of the earth”), 27, 28, 174. See also geographical knowledge; Guangxi, geography of
di mo地脈 (“veins of the earth”), 27
Di Qing狄青 (1008–57), 70, 77
diao jiao鵰勦 (surgical strike), concept of, 126
Dingluo定羅, Fort, battle of, 88
diseases. See malaria; miasma; plagues; perils
disorder: propensity for (see under markers); sources of, 74, 112–16, 138–39. See also bandits and banditry
Dong狪: as category, 142, 143, 144, 147n12, 149, 191, 197; depictions of, 147; in Huaiyuan, 145, 147, 181
Dòng峝 /峒: as category, 141
dong峝 /峒 (native settlement), 106, 147n12
Dong Yuanru董元儒 (js. 1601), 33n20
Dongan東安 county (Guangdong), “Lang” in, 149
Donglao狪獠: as category, 142na, 143; masquerading as Yao, 140. See also Gelao; Lao獠
Dongyue東越: as category, 164
“downstreaming,” practice of, 17
droughts. See nature-induced disasters
du都 (wards), 134
Dubei都貝, Great King of, 152
Duara, Prasenjit, 184
Dujie Zhou都結州: chieftain of, 99; tax quota for, 72
Duxiu Shan獨秀山 (Peak of Singular Beauty), 30
e惡 (intractable) “Zhuang,” 124–25
economic life. See under Guangxi province
economy, commercialization of: and increased mobility of population, 170, 171–172; and pressure on literati, 182
education. See Imperial Academy; institutes of nationalities; schools; “special education”
Eight Man (Baman): as category, 153
elephants, 51–52, 62
empirical knowledge: emphasis on, 178–82. See also firsthand observations; geographical knowledge
Encheng Zhou恩城州, 69, 70
encyclopedias and almanacs (lei shu), 167, 169–70. See also sources
“enlightened people” (wen ming ren), 197
enlightenment (kai hua): rhetoric of, 184, 185, 196–97. See also civilization
environment, natural: as barriers, 163, 164; and China’s expansion, 2, 11–12, 51–55
Esen也先 (d. 1455), 159, 160. See also Mongols
Essential Information for Governing Guangxi (Dian Yue yao zuan殿粵要纂), 106, 120, 128–30, 131, 132, 133, 141, 142, 143–44, 144–45. See also Yang Fang
ethnic groups. See min zu
ethnic identities: as constructed, xiii
“ethnic landscape,” 13, 206
“ethnic” markers. See markers
ethnicity, concept of, 3
ethnology (min zu xue): as academic discipline, 197
European empires (in the Americas), 7
evidential learning (kao zheng xue), 180. See also empirical knowledge
evolution, rhetoric of, 196–97
expansion: as demarcation and categorization, 5, 208; narratives of, 1–4; and natural environment, 2, 11–12, 51–55; and state-building, 6–7
fa發 (to manifest), 29
famines. See nature-induced disasters
fan番 (“non-Chinese” in western regions), 138, 188
Fan Chengda范成大 (1126–93), 22–23; depictions of Yao傜 in Descriptions of Forests and Marshes of the Gui Region (Gui hai yu heng zhi桂海虞衡志), 151–53
Fan Zhongyan范仲淹 (989–1052), 163
Fang Yizhi方以智 (1611–71), 180
fang zhi方志. See gazetteers, local
farmer-soldiers (geng bing), 39. See also native soldiers
Feathereds: as category, 169. See also hybrid creatures
Fei Xiaotong費孝通, 2n2, 202
Feng Bin馮彬 (js. 1529), 36
Feng Jun馮俊 (js. 1460), 110
Feng Run馮潤, 102
field investigations, 197, 200, 201
First Emperor of Qin秦始皇 (r. 221–210 BCE), 10, 11. See also Qin dynasty
“First Nations,” 6
firsthand observations: importance of, 139, 141, 143, 150, 176, 177, 178, 188, 190. See also empirical knowledge
fiscal problems: of princely estates, 30; of wei suo system, 34, 39. See also tax collection
Five Marchmounts (wu yue), 173
Five-part Series on Nationalities Issues (Min zu wen ti wu zhong cong shu), 201–202
floods. See nature-induced disasters
Fried, Morton H., 1
frontiers: “new” history of, 19; in state-building, 6; as term, 18. See also borderland, southern; borderlands
fu lao輔老 (senior advisor), 69
Fu River府江: disorders in region, 25, 39, 118; military campaign of 1572–73, 98, 135–36; as strategic route, 25, 33
Fu Youde傅友德 (d. 1394), 73
gai tu gui liu改土歸流 (conversion of native domains into regular administrative units), 186–87
Ganza, Kenneth, 179–80
gao誥 patents: for native chieftains, 62
Gazetteer of Huaiyuan County (Huaiyuan xian zhi懷遠縣志), 147, 181–82
Gazetteer of Nanning Prefecture (Nanning fu zhi南寧府志), 147
Gazetteer of Pingle Prefecture (Pingle fu zhi平樂府志), 115n14, 182
Gazetteer of Qingyuan Prefecture (Qingyuan fu zhi慶遠府志), 146, 147
Gazetteer of Quan Zhou (Quan zhou zhi全州志), 114n13
Gazetteer of Rong County (Rong xian zhi融縣志), 196
Gazetteer of Siming Prefecture (Siming fu zhi思明府志), 64–67, 76
Gazetteer of Taiping Prefecture (Taiping fu zhi太平府志), 68, 148
Gazetteer of Wuzhou Prefecture (Wuzhou fu zhi梧州府志), 53, 132, 134, 149, 154. See also Chen Jian
Gazetteer of Yongfu County (Yongfu xian zhi永福縣志), 156, 157
Gazetteer of Yongning County (Yongning xian zhi邕寧縣志), 196
Gazetteer of Zhaoping County (Zhaoping xian zhi昭平縣志), 136
gazetteers, local (fang zhi), 14, 127, 141, 170, 174, 190, 196; See also individual titles
ge wu格物 (investigation of things), 180
Gelao犵獠 /狫: as category, 141, 142na, 143; masquerading as Yao, 140. See also Donglao; Lao獠
Gelao仡佬: as “minority nationality,” 201
Geling犵狑: as category, 146. See also Ling
genealogies: of native clans, 69, 70
General Gazetteer of Guangxi (Guangxi tong zhi廣西通志; 1493), 141–42, 191
General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1531): categories of man yi in, 142, 143, 191; on elephants, 51–52; on environment, 20, 25, 28; on officials, 67; population data in, 41, 42; on Tianzhou and Sien, 85; on “Yao,” 152–53; on “Zhuang,” 155
General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1599): categories of man yi in, 142, 143, 191; on environment, 46; on “Gelao” and “Donglao,” 140; map of Cenxi, 132, 133; map of Quan Zhou, 130, 131; military population data, 36; on native chieftains, 56; registered population data, 40, 41; on tigers, 52; on “Yao,” 154. See also Su Jun
General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1733), 21, 146n10, 147n12, 148, 190–92
General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1801), 191, 192
geng bing耕兵. See farmer-soldiers
geng hua梗化 (obstructive), 128
geographical knowledge: demand and supply, 170–71, 174–78. See also empirical knowledge; si yi: sources on
geography. See Guangxi, geography of
Gladney, Dru C., 4, 13, 202
gong貢 (tributes). See tributary relations
gong sheng貢生. See “tribute students”
Gong tong gang ling共同綱領. See “Common Guidelines”
Gongyao工堯 (Tianzhou), battle of, 88
gou wei shan狗尾衫 (dog’s tail blouse), 154
grand coordinator (xun fu), office of, 29
Great Wall, 8, 159, 160, 163
gu蠱 poisoning, 48–49; and Zhuang women, 156, 182
Gu Xiancheng顧憲成 (1550–1612), 174
Gu Xingzu顧興祖 (ca. 1390–1460), 117
Gu Yanwu顧炎武 (1613–82): Strengths and Weaknesses of the Various Regions of the Realm (Tian xia jun guo li bing shu天下郡國利病書), 178
Guan Daxun管大勳 (js. 1565), 33n20
Guangdong廣東 province: as borderland, 18, 29; disorders in, 119; in early imperial period, 7, 10; grain from, 50; “Lang” in, 149; migrants from, 45; population density of, 44; soldiers from, 38. See also borderland, southern
Guangxi廣西 province, 24; agricultural and economic life in, 46–49, 85, 114–15; in comparative perspective, 10–11, 26–27, 28–29, 177; development of, 28–29, 177; in early imperial period, 7, 10–11; perils of (see perils); tenancy in, 114, 122, 136–37. See also borderland, southern; Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region
Guangxi, administration of: bureaucratic structure, 29, 31; creation and distribution of administrative seats, 31–33; elimination of official posts, 31, 34, 67, 110; incompetence of officials, 34, 67, 94, 96, 138; infrastructure projects, 33. See also fiscal problems
Guangxi, geography of, 22–29; climate, 26–27, 37, 93; di li and qi energy, 27, 28–29; “extraordinary” landscape, 22–23; karstic topography, 26; rainfall, 26–27, 50–51; regional diversity, 25–26; river system, 11, 23–25, 26, 177
Guangxi, population of, 40–46, 108–12 “decline,” 40, 41, 109–110; distribution, 45–46, 107, 110–11, 127–28, 129, 130, 132; estimates, 44; official data and its limits, 40–44, 111. See also man yi; migration; min; min and man yi
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region廣西壯族自治區: establishment of, 199–200 “minority nationalities” in, 201
Guanyang灌陽 county (Guilin), 43n33, 128, 129
guard (wei) and battalion (suo) system, 11, 34–40. See also military officers and soldiers
Gui River桂江. See Fu River
Guideways through Mountains and Seas (Shan hai jing), 167, 168, 170
gui hua歸化 (transformation through submission): rhetoric of, 184, 185. See also assimilation; xiang hua
Guilin桂林 (commandery), 10
Guilin桂林 (prefecture): accessibility of, 46; clans of, 46; landscape of, 22–23, 26; population of, 41, 42, 45–46, 111; tenancy in, 114 “Zhuang” in, 155
Guilin桂林 (provincial capital): native soldiers in, 91; princely estate at, 29–30; routes to, 23–25; “Zhuang” attacks of, 123, 124. See also Lingui county
Guilin shan shui jia tian xia桂林山水甲天下 (“the mountains and waters of Guilin are the most splendid of all-under-heaven”), 22–23
Guiping桂平 county (Xunzhou), 118, 120
Guishun Zhou歸順州, 88, 100–101, 103
Guizhou貴州: as borderland, 18, 29; geography of, 177; miao albums of, 190; native domains in, 58; native soldiers from, 120; as province, 8; rebellions in, 92; tax exemption for, 73; “Zhuang” migrants from, 157. See also borderland, southern
Guo猓: as category, 191
Guo Fei郭棐 (1529–1605): Descriptions of the non-Chinese in South of the Range (Lingnan zhu yi zhi嶺南諸夷志), 166
guo jia國家, 192, 193. See also nation-state, making of
guo shan bang過山榜 (“certificates of mountain crossing”), 17. See also Yao
Guo Yingpin郭應聘 (1500–86), 98, 135–36
Guo zi jian國子監. See Imperial Academy
Gupeng Zhen古蓬鎮, 101–102. See also native police offices
Gutian古田 county (Guilin): disorders in, 122–24; renamed Yongning Zhou, 125; military campaign of 1570–71, 98, 124–25; “Yao”傜 in (Song dynasty), 152. See also Yongning Zhou
“Han”: as category, 3, 4, 18, 186; and “Chinese,” 3, 193, 198, 202; construction of identities as history of, 208; Ming dynasty as, 10; as min zu, 3, 193, 195, 196, 198, 206; people (in Ming), 98, 110. See also “Chinese”; min zu
han寒 (chill; cool), 27
“Han” and “non-Han”: boundaries between, 3, 187–88; commonalities between, 197–98; as conceptual binary, 3, 206; dialectical relationship between, 208; as members of she hui, 196; rejected as history’s building blocks, 4, 6. See also “Chinese” and “non-Chinese”; majority and minority; markers; “non-Han”; “unitary multi-national state”; unity and diversity
Han漢 dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), 15, 115, 162
han er zhi悍而質 (ferocious and crude), 25
Han Yong韓雍 (1422–78): on decline of military population, 36; military campaigns of, 119–20, 122, 135. See also Rattan Gorge; Yao
Hanlin翰林 Academy, 161
hao ren nu shou好人怒獸 (“when content [the man yi act like] they are humans; when discontent [they behave as if] they are beasts”), 106, 116
Harrell, Stevan, 207
“haunts.” See chao
Hazelton, Keith, xix
he po suo河泊所 (fishing-tax office), 34
headmen. See native headmen
Hechi河池 battalion, 37
Heijdra, Martin, 16, 44
Heng衡, Mount (modern-day Hunan), 173
Heng恆, Mount (Shanxi), 173
Heng Zhou橫州 (Nanning), 47–48, 146, 176. See also Wang Ji
History of the Liang (Liang shu梁書), 150
History of the Sui (Sui shu隋書), 150
Hongwu洪武 emperor (r. 1368–98): “Ancestral Instructions” (Zu xun), 165; edicts to chieftains, 56, 76; and elephants, 51; enfeoffment of princes, 29, 30; and institution of native chieftaincy, 57–58, 61, 71, 72, 103, 104; message to officers, 37n25; on native clans, 74–75; “Proclamation of Accession,” 57; rhetoric of wen jiao, 104, 158
Hongzhi弘治 emperor (r. 1488–1505), 161, 162
horses: as “tributes,” 61, 62
Hostetler, Laura, 188, 190
Hou Dagou侯大狗, 119, 121
Hou Gongding侯公丁, 121
Hou Shenghai侯勝海, 121
hu胡 (“non-Chinese” in the north), 115
hua華 (“Chinese”), 17, 94, 96, 146, 149, 164
hua化 (civilized; transformed), 18. See also gui hua, kai hua, tong hua, xiang hua, xian dai hua
Hua華, Mount (Shaanxi), 173
hua and yi, 160, 161, 162, 163, 182, 183. See also “Chinese” and “non-Chinese”
hua yi zhi fang華夷之防 (defense of the boundaries between “Chinese” and “non-Chinese”), 161
Huaiyuan懷遠 county (Liuzhou), 145: categories of man yi in, 144, 147, 181; as center of violence, 106–108, 118; customs of man yi in, 147, 181–82 “Yao”傜 in (Song dynasty), 152; “Yao bandits” in, 107
Huang Fang黃芳 (js. 1508), 52
Huang Fu黃福 (1363–1440), 23
Huang Gang黃 (d. 1438), 78–79
Huang Guangcheng黃廣成 (1383?–1413), 76, 77, 78, 80
Huang Hong黃 (1401?–57), 76–77, 78–80, 81
Huang Hudu黃忽都 (1347–98), 76, 77, 80
Huang Qing zhi gong tu皇清職貢圖. See Illustrations of the Tributaries of the Qing Imperium
Huang Qiu黃銶, 79
Huang Shang黃尚, 80, 81
Huang Shao黃紹 (d. 1505), 80
Huang Tai黃泰, 80
Huang Wenchang黃文昌, 80
Huang Xiaoyang黃蕭養 (d. 1450), uprising of, 138, 139
Huang Yinglei黃應雷, 80
Huang Yu黃瑜 (1426–97), 48–49
Huang Zhen黃震 (d. 1468), 79, 80
Huang Zhong黃衷, 109
Huangs黃: of Guangxi, 74–75; of Shangsi Zhou, 77
Huangs (Siming), 78; as buffer against Annam, 89; entrenched power of, 75–81; family history of, 77; marriage practices of, 77; relations with Ming court, 76–77, 79–81. See also Siming Fu
Huaxia華夏: as “lineage” (xi), 195
huaxia華夏 (“Chinese”), 17, 162
Hucker, Charles O., xix
Huguang湖廣 province: as borderland, 18, 29; migrants from, 45, 114; native domains in, 58; soldiers from, 38, 88, 120. See also borderland, southern
Hui回 (Muslims), 192, 193, 196, 201
hui hao徽號 (labels) and hui zhang徽章 (markers), 197
hun er tong混而同 (“mixing with and assimilating to”), 164
Hunan湖南 province: miao substatutes in, 187
Huo Ji霍冀 (1516–75): Annotated Illustrations of the Northern Borders (Jiu bian tu shuo九邊圖說), 166
Huo Tao霍韜 (1487–1540), 26
hybrid creatures: illustrations of, 167–170
“iconic circuit,” 170
identities: as constructed, xiii, 5–6, 202–204, 207; prisoners of modernist, xiii
illustrations: of hybrid creatures, 167–70; of “non-Han” (in Qing dynasty), 188–190. See also maps
Illustrations of the Tributaries of the Qing Imperium (Huang Qing zhi gong tu), 188–90
Imperial Academy (Guo zi jian), 71, 161; students (jian sheng), 65–66, 67, 112 “tribute students” (gong sheng), 71
inscriptions, stone, 14, 15–16, 23n5, 69, 70, 77, 103. See also sources
institutes of nationalities民族學院, 200
ji mi羈縻 (“loosely reined”) domains, 7, 75. See also native domains
Ji Zongdao計宗道 (js. 1499), 114
jian奸 (scoundrel), 136
jia甲: as subdivision in native domain, 68, 69, 97; as “tithing,”. 38, 41na
jian sheng監生. See under Imperial Academy
jiang hu shi da fu江湖士大夫 (literati circle), 21
Jiang Mian蔣冕 (1463–1533), 64, 92, 116
Jiang Wan姜綰 (1452–1507), 85
Jiang Yuan江淵 (js. 1430), 79
Jiangs蔣 (Quan Zhou), 46
Jiao交 /Jiaozhi交趾. See Annam
jie街 (subdivision in native domain), 68
Jie Ji揭稽 (js. 1424), 93–94, 97, 109; on “Ling,” 146
jin shi進士 (metropolitan graduates)
Jing京: as “minority nationality,” 201
Jingjiang靜江 prefecture (Song dynasty), 22, 152
Jingtai景泰 emperor (r. 1450–56), 79, 160
Jinhua金華, Mount (Zhejiang), 173
Jingzhou荊州 prefecture (Huguang), 54
Jiucenglou九層樓 (mountain), 120
Jiuhua九華, Mount (modern-day Anhui), 173
ju ren舉人 (provincial graduates)
jun tun軍屯 (military colonization). See guard and battalion system
Jurchens, 139, 159
kai hua開化. See enlightenment
Kang犺: as category, 191
Kangxi康熙 emperor (r. 1662–1722): and miao albums, 190
kao zheng考證 and kao zheng xue考證學. See evidential learning
ke客 (“guest”), 18
Khitans, 139
Ku嚳, Emperor, 151
Kuan欵: as category, 138, 142
Lai as category, 191
Laian Lu來安路, 61, 82
Lancang瀾滄 defense circuit (Yunnan), 173
land: clashes over, 12, 108, 113, 115–16, 116–17, 121, 122, 136–37; limited productivity of, 46–48, 110; for military farms, 36; for or in native domains, 73, 85, 120, 136. See also tenancy
landlord–tenant relationships. See tenancy
Làng浪: as category, 191
lang bing狼兵. See under native soldiers
lang huo郎火 (native headmen), 147
lang ji狼藉 (disorderliness), 148
Lang people狼人 /狼民: as category, 142, 147–49, 191; of Cenxi, 188, 189 ; “proliferation” of, 110, 148; in Wuzhou, 134, 149
languages. See under markers
lao獠: as generic “non-Chinese,” 26
Lao獠: as category, 4, 8, 19, 138, 141, 142–43, 191
Lao僚. See Rau
Lattimore, Owen, 2
Lê黎 clan (Annam), 100
Learning of the Way (dao xue), 180
Left River左江, 177; region, 59, 60, 64, 89, 126, 148
lei類 (stock; variety), 147
lei shu類書. See encyclopedias and almanacs
Li俚: as category, 8
Li黎: as category, 141, 188
Li狸: as category, 191
li理 (coherence; pattern), 181
li里 (distance) = 0.54 kilometer (approx.)
li里 (“hundred”), 41, 109, 110
Li Chi (Li Ji李濟; 1896–1979): Formation of the Chinese People, 193–94
Li Dongyang李東陽 (1447–1516), 39
li ji zhi min tian立籍制民田 (“to register the population and to catalog people’s land”), 73
li jia里甲 (“hundred and tithing”) system, 41na
Li Jifu李吉甫 (758–814): Illustrated Descriptions of the Administrative Regions in the Yuanhe Period (Yuanhe jun xian tu zhi元和郡縣圖志), 150
Li Mengyang李孟暘 (1432–1509), 109
li mu吏目 (administrative clerk), 67
Li River漓江, 23, 24, 33
Li Shizhen李時珍 (1518–93): Material Medica: A General Outline (Ben chao gang mu本草綱目), 178–79, 180
Li Wenfeng李文鳳 (js. 1532), 49
Li Zengbo李曾伯, 154–55
Li Zhi李贄 (1527–1602), 180–81
Li Zhou利州, 82n29
Li Zongxian李宗羨 (js. 1460), ordeals of, 20–22, 48
liang良 (tame), 128
Libo荔波 county (Qingyuan): “Zhuang” in, 155
Lin Fu林富 (js. 1502), 97–98; on “Han,” 98
Lin Huixiang林惠祥: History of the Chinese Nation (Zhongguo min zu shi中國民族史), 193, 194–95
Ling狑: as category, 4, 19, 138, 142–43, 144, 149, 191; depictions of, 146; in Huaiyuan, 147, 181
Ling (Numinous) Canal靈渠, 11, 23, 24, 33
ling wai另外 (distinct), 146n10
Ling Yunyi凌雲翼 (js. 1547), 36, 126. See also Record of the Office of the Supreme Commander at Cangwu
Linglao狑獠: as category, 146. See also Ling
Lingquan靈川 county (Guilin): “bandits” in, 123 “Zhuang” in, 128
Lingui臨桂 county (Guilin): clans of, 46; relative peace in, 111; types of “Yao” in, 154
Lingyun凌雲 county, 103
Linhai臨海 (Zhejiang), 172, 173
Lipu荔浦 county (Pingle): military campaign in, 119 “Zhuang” in, 155
Lis李 (Guangxi), 75
literary history (wen xue shi): of “minority nationalities,” 16
literati (wen ren): circle, 21; pressure on, 182–83; travelers, 170, 172–74
Litzinger, Ralph, 203
Liu Jie劉介. See Liu Xifan
Liu Jin劉瑾 (d. 1510), 86
Liu Pu柳溥 (d. 1461), 37
Liu Ren劉仁, ordeals of, 22
Liu Xifan劉錫蕃: Notes on the non-Han of Guangxi (Ling biao ji man嶺表紀蠻), 197
Liu Yaohui劉堯誨 (1522–85), 126. See also Record of the Office of the Supreme Commander at Cangwu
Liu Zongyuan柳宗元 (773–819), 22
Liuzhou柳州 prefecture: environment of, 26; isolation of min people in, 110; landscape of, 22; native soldiers in, 91; official population data of, 41, 42; tigers in, 52
Liuzhou Guard柳州衛, 117
livelihood, modes of. See under markers彝
Lolo. See Yi
long龍 (“dragons”), 29
Long Zhou龍州, 61, 77, 86
Longjia龍家: as category, 141
lu路 (route command), 82
lu虜 (“non-Chinese” in the north), 138; sources on, 166
Lü Simian呂思勉 (1884–1957): History of the Chinese Nation (Zhongguo min zu shi中國民族史), 194
Lu Su盧蘇, 96, 97
Lü Tiaoyang呂調陽 (1516–80), 38
Lu Wanli陸萬里, 102
Lu You陸佑, 80, 81
Lü Zhao呂趙, rebellion of, 85
Lu Zhi陸贄 (754–805), 162
luo hou落後 (backward), 196
Luo Yuejiong羅曰褧 (jr. 1585): Record of Tribute Guests (Xian bin lu咸賓錄), 165
Luoding Zhou羅定州 (Guangdong): “Lang” in, 149
Luoluo羅羅: as category, 141
Lüs呂 (Lingui), 46
Ma馬: as category, 141, 191
Ma Duanlin馬端臨 (ca. 1254–ca. 1325): Comprehensive Study of Important Documents (Wen xian tong kao文獻通考), 151
Ma Feng馬鳳, 53–54, 55
Ma Jun馬俊, 123
ma lan麻欄 dwellings, 156, 157
Ma Xuan馬鉉, 123
Mac Kinh Khoan莫敬寬, 100. See also Annam
Macs莫 (Cao Bang), 100, 103. See also Annam
majority and minority: concepts of, 6; state-building and making of, 7, 13, 202, 206
malaria (nüe ji), 26, 28. See also miasma; plagues
man蠻: as generic “non-Chinese,” 12, 19, 26, 43, 57, 58, 70, 107; as “non-Han” in Republican period, 197, 198. See also man yi; “non-Han”
Man蠻: as category, 8, 143; of Fushui撫水, 142na; of Guangyuan廣源, 142, 143, 191; of Xiyuan西原, 142, 143, 191
man yi蠻夷: as generic “non-Chinese,” 19, 43, 57, 90, 107; categorization of, 140–49, 187–92; nature of, 116, 137, 138, 182; “proliferation” of, 108–12; as source of disorder, 114–17, 137; tax collection from, 114–15, 125, 134–35, 146, 149, 182. See also min and man yi; “non-Chinese”; si yi
man yi zhang guan蠻夷長官 (squad leader; chief), 61. See also native chieftains
Manchus, 186, 192, 193, 206
Mangjia尨家: as category, 141
Mao Ruizheng茅瑞徵 (js. 1601): Record of the Interpreters of the Ming Imperium (Huang Ming xiang xu lu皇明象胥錄), 165
Mao Zedong毛澤東 (1883–1976), 199
Maonan毛南: as “minority nationality,” 201
Maping馬平 county (Liuzhou): decline of population in, 110; tenancy in, 114
maps: accuracy of, 130, 134, 144; cartographic symbols in, 130, 132; demarcation and categorization in, 143–45; in local gazetteers, 130–34; in military handbooks, 127, 129–33. See also illustrations
margins: groups at, 205. See also borderlands
markers: customs and religions, 147, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155–56, 157, 182, 190, 193, 197, 199, 201; languages, 138, 146, 196, 197, 198, 199; marriage and mating practices, 147, 149, 150, 152, 153, 154, 157, 181, 182; modes of livelihood, 107, 146, 147, 150, 151, 152–53, 188, 201; physical appearance, 146, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153–54, 188, 196; places of abode/origin, 107, 146, 149, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 188, 191, 193; propensity for disorder, 117, 122, 146, 147, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155; Stalin on “nation,” 200–201; Sun Yat-sen on min zu, 192–93. See also nationality identification; self-representations; sheng and shu
Marks, Robert B., 11n16, 44, 51, 52–53
marriage and mating practices. See under markers
mercenary soldiers (mu bing), 38–39, 87
merchants, itinerant, 45, 48–49, 116, 170, 171–72
mercury, 49
Miao苗: as category, 141, 142, 188, 191, 197, 201; in Huaiyuan, 144, 145, 147, 181; language, 198; as “minority nationality,” 202–203
miao albums (bai miao tu; miao man tu苗蠻圖), 190. See also illustrations
miao li苗例 (miao substatutes), 187
miao yao苗猺: as generic “non-Chinese,” 187. See also man yi
miasma (zhang), 20, 26, 27–28, 37, 55. See also perils
migration, 44–45, 114, 122, 157; in Qin dynasty, 10, 11
military colonization (jun tun). See guard and battalion system
military farms (tun tian): disappearance of, 36
military officers and soldiers: as agents of “civilization,” 34; depleted ranks of, 36, 37–38; migration of, 44–45; encroachment by, 113; hardship met by, 37, 93; indiscriminate killings by, 112–13. See also civilian militias; farmer-soldiers; guard and battalion system; mercenary soldiers
min民 (registered subjects): as category, 12, 18, 107 “depletion” of, 109–10, 111; as landlords, 114, 122, 136–37; as middlemen, 115; as minority, 108–109, 110–11 “under siege,” 108–109, 115–16. See also Guangxi, population of
min and man yi: demarcation of, 12, 107, 111–12, 116, 125–35, 138; distribution of, 107, 110–11, 127–28, 129, 130, 132; relations between, 107, 108, 115, 116–17, 122. See also bandits and banditry; hua and yi; man yi; markers; tenancy
min bing民兵 /min zhuang民壯. See civilian militias
Min Gui閔珪 (1430–1511), 123
min zu民族: as category, 196, 198; as constructed, 185; five major, 13, 193, 206; Li Chi on, 193–94; Lin Huixiang on, 194–95; “special,” 197; Sun Yat-sen on, 192–93; as term, 192. See also “Chinese”; “Han”; “minority nationalities”; “non-Han”; nation
Min zu wen ti wu zhong cong shu民族問題五種叢書. See Five-part Series on Nationalities Issues
min zu shi bie民族識別. See nationality identification
min zu xue民族學. See ethnology
Ming明 dynasty (1368–1644), 9; borders with Annam, 8, 100–101; boundary formation, 8; as “Han Chinese,” 10; Ministry of Personnel, 61, 69; Ministry of Rites, 63; Ministry of War, 61, 110, 166; politics, 29, 30, 53, 56–58, 79, 86, 158–60, 170, 172, 174; relations with Mongols, 57, 158–60, 163; relations with Southeast Asia, 57; significance, 8–10, 185, 206; “universal appeal,” 57, 158
Ming hui dian明會典. See Collected Statutes of the Ming
Ming shi lu明實錄. See Veritable Records of the Ming
Ming state. See state, centralizing
minority, concept of. See majority and minority
“minority nationalities” (shao shu min zu): as category, 6; and “downstreaming,” 17; fieldwork among, 200, 201; literary history of, 16; Ming antecedents of, 8–9; official classification of, 200–201; official history of, 203, 207; online communities of, 203–204; under People’s Republic, 13, 198–204; in post-1949 Guangxi, 201; (self-)representations of, 202–204, 207; in “unitary multi-national state,” 202. See also majority and minority; min zu; “non-Han”; “unitary multi-national state”
Minyue閩越: as category, 164
mo貊 (“uncivilized”), 25
Mo莫 clan (Xincheng), 95
Mo Guoqi莫國麒, 155
Mo Zheng莫禎, 93
modernization (xian dai hua): rhetoric of, 184, 185
Mongols, 57, 79, 115, 158–60, 162, 163; in Republican period, 192, 193, 206
Mongolia, 158, 184, 186, 193
Moyao莫徭: as category, 150
mu畝 (area) = 570 square meters (approx.)
mu bing募兵. See mercenary soldiers
mu ye木葉 clay, 151
Mulao狇狫: as category, 141
Mulao仫佬: as “minority nationality,” 201
Muslims. See Hui
Nadi Zhou那地州 (Qingyuan), 48
Nandan Zhou南丹州 (Qingyuan), 93, 155
Nanhai南海 commandery, 10
Nanning南寧 (present-day provincial capital): floods, 51; Institute of Nationalities, 200
Nanning南寧 prefecture: intermingling of min and man yi in, 110; lack of rainfall in, 50; official population data of, 41, 42; “Shanzi” in, 146–47
Nanyue南越: as category, 164
nation: national history and concept of, xiii, 4; Stalin on, 201. See also min zu
national history: of China, 4, 206; and concepts of nation and nation-state, 4
national identities: as constructed, xiii
Nationalist Party國民黨: First National Congress, 193
nationalities. See min zu; “minority nationalities”
Nationality Affairs Commission (State Council)國家民族事務委員會, 202
Nationality Affairs Committee (National People’s Congress)人民代表大會民族委員會, 200, 201
nationality identification (min zu shi bie), project of, 200–201
nation-state (guo jia), making of: collapse of Qing dynasty and, 4, 192–93; demarcation and categorization in, 185, 206; and national history, xiii, 4; Ming legacies in, 185, 206; in Republican period, 184; Sun Yat-sen on, 192. See also majority and minority; “unitary multi-national state”; unity and diversity
“native”: as term, 18–19; voices, 13, 16, 19, 207
“Native Americans,” 6
native chieftaincy (tu si), institution of: as accommodation, 2; as fragile alliance, 73–74, 74–81, 81–90, 100–104; legacies of, 12, 104–105; and limits of state, 12, 57, 67, 71–73, 89–90, 100–104; Ming rationales for, 56, 57–58, 58, 81, 89, 90–99; and notion of legitimacy, 81, 104; theory and practice of, 58–74, 100–105; tributary relations as part of, 62–63, 104; as vehicle of “civilization,” 94, 104; in Yuan dynasty, 58, 61
native chieftains (tu guan; tu si): “civil” versus “military,” 61, 64; “civilization” of, 71–72, 94, 96, 103; co-option of, 7, 12, 56, 57–58, 58–74; genealogies of, 69, 70, 71, 77, 102, 103, 104; increased reliance on, 93–99; reactions against gai tu gui liu by, 187; rules and regulations for, 61–74; succession issues of, 69–70, 71, 75, 78–79, 85–86, 100; symbolic gifts (formal attires; patents; seals) for, 62; as term, 18–19; tributary missions of, 61, 62–63; use of kinship ties by, 75, 77, 81, 88, 104; use of poisons by, 67, 87, 89; women as, 62, 69
native clans: entrenched power of, 74–81, 81–90
native domains (tu si): administrative structure of, 64–69; as buffers, 56, 89, 98, 99, 101, 104; classification of, 64; conversion of, 31–33, 86, 89, 95, 96, 186–87; distribution of, 58, 59–60; increased recognition of, 12, 92–99; “loosely reined” (ji mi ), 7, 75; regular officials in, 64–67; schools in, 71–72; size of, 68, 74; subdivisions (jia; jie; zhou) in, 68; tax collection from, 59, 72–73, 94, 109; as term, 19n24; upheavals in, 74, 75, 78–80, 82–83, 84–86, 96; warfare among, 74, 75, 80, 82n29, 84, 85–87, 99, 100; Xu Hongzu’s impression of, 99–103
native headmen (tou mu), 68, 80, 85, 96, 121
native officials (tu guan): as term, 19n24. See also native chieftains
native police offices (tu xun jian si), 97, 98, 101–102, 120–21
native population. See man yi
native soldiers (tu bing): as “farmer-soldiers,” 39; recruitment of, 63–64, 90–91, 136; reliance on, 73, 90–92, 96; as term, 18–19; unruliness of, 87, 92; as “wolf soldiers” (lang bing), 63, 147–48
“natives” and “settlers”: boundaries between, 187; as terms, 18
nature-induced disasters, 27, 49–51. See also perils
nei內 (inside) and wai外 (outside), boundaries between, 162
nei di內地 (interior), 106
“non-Chinese”: as category, 3; construction of identities as history of, 206–208; expansion as demarcation and categorization of, 5, 8, 13. See also “Chinese” and “non-Chinese”; man yi; markers; si yi
Nong ?: as category, 191
Nong Zhigao儂智高 (fl. 1022–55), 70
“non-Han”: as category, 3, 4, 18, 206; construction of identities as history of, 206–208; as “minority nationalities,” 184, 198–204; in modern-day Guangxi, 43, 196–98, 200, 201; in Qing dynasty, 187, 190; in Republican period, 184, 196, 197. See also “Han” and “non-Han”; markers; “minority nationalities”
nüe ji瘧疾. See malaria
Nung (Nong)儂: as “minority nationlity,” 204
obsessions ( pi ), 180–81
officials: inepitude and misconduct of, 34, 67, 94, 96, 112–13, 138–39
online communities: and construction of identities, 203–204
outlaws (wang ming zhi peng) and loafers (you shou ba min), 113
Ottoman empire, 7
Ouyue甌越: as category, 164
Pan槃 (surname), 152
Panhu盤瓠, 151, 152, 153, 182
People’s Republic of China: autonomous administrative areas (zi zhi qu), 105, 199–200; Constitution (1954), 199; field investigations, 201; Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, 10, 199–200; institute of nationalities, 200; Law of Autonomy for Minority Nationality Regions民族區域自治法, 199; nationality identification, 13, 184, 200–201; population censuses, 200–201. See also “minority nationalities”; “unitary multi-national state”
perils: for visitors, 11, 20–22, 25–26, 26–28, 33–34, 37, 48–49, 99. See also bandits and banditry; miasma; nature-induced disasters; plagues; poisons; tigers
Peterson, Willard J., 180
physical appearance. See under markers
pi癖. See obsessions
Pingle平樂 prefecture: disorders in, 25; min and man yi in, 110, 111; official population data of, 41, 42; “Yao” and “Zhuang” in, 182
Pingnan平南 county (Xunzhou), 118
places of abode/origin. See under markers
plagues (yi li ), 11, 37, 50. See also malaria; miasma; perils
Plaks, Andrew H., 182
poisonous vapors. See miasma
poisons: use of, 67, 87, 89. See also gu poisoning; perils
population. See Guangxi, population of
population censuses, 200–201
postal relay stations (pu), 33, 130. See also courier stations
Prakash, Gyan, 208
princely estate (Guilin), 29–30
pu舖. See postal relay stations
publishing: boom in, 167–70, 170–71 174–77
Puding Fu普定府 (Guizhou), 71
Putuo普陀 Island (Zhejiang), 173
qi氣 (ether; energy), 27, 28–29
qi奇 (extraordinary) landscape, 22–23
Qian River黔江, 117, 118, 119, 121
Qianlong乾隆 emperor (r. 1736–95), 187, 188, 206
Qin秦 dynasty (221–206 BCE), 115; southward expansion, 7, 10, 11, 51
Qin Wanxian覃萬賢, 123
qing頃 (area) = 5.7 hectares (approx.)
Qing清 dynasty (1636–1912): “alien” rule, 10, 186; approaches to the south, 184, 186–88; categorization of man yi, 184, 188–92; “civilization” of native population, 187; conversion of native domains, 186–87; Illustrations of the Tributaries of the Qing Imperium, 188–90; miao albums, 190; miao substatutes, 187; modern nation-state and collapse of, 4, 192; quarantine policy, 187; as “universal empire,” 185, 186, 188
qing jun清軍 (conscription), 37, 38, 44–45
qing情 sentiments, 181
Qingyuan慶遠 prefecture: elimination of administrative posts in, 67; as “end of heaven-and-earth,” 23; isolation of min people in, 110; “Ling” in, 146; native chieftains and domains of, 43, 67, 93; official population data of, 41, 42; tigers in, 52; tin from, 62–63; “Zhuang” in, 155
Qingzhou青州 prefecture (Song dynasty), 70
Qiongshan (modern-day Hainan), 161
Qiu Jun丘濬 (1421–95): on boundaries between hua and yi, 161–65; on native chieftaincy, 94, 164; on sources of disorder in Guangdong and Guangxi, 112–13, 115, 119; on trade between min and man yi, 164; Supplement to the “Extended Meaning of the Great Learning” (Da xue yan yi bu大學衍義補), 161–62
Qu Dajun屈大均 (1630–96): News from Guangdong (Guangdong xin yu廣東新語), 149
quan券 (land deeds), 114
Quan Zhou全州 (Guilin), 43n33; clans of, 46; floods in, 49; maps of, 130, 131; min and man yi in 128, 129; relative peace in, 111
Qufu曲阜 (Shandong), 173
“race.” See ren zhong; zhong; zhong zu
racial identities: as constructed, xiii
Ranjia冉家: as category, 141
Rattan Gorge (Dateng Xia), 120 : as center of violence, 117–19, 121; as Chopped Rattan (Duanteng斷藤) Gorge, 119; creation of native domains in, 120–21; military campaigns in, 91, 119, 121–122, 135. See also Yao
Rau (Lao)僚, 204
Rauz.net (Zhuang zu zai xian), 204
Record of the Office of the Supreme Commander at Cangwu (Cangwu zong du jun men zhi蒼梧總督軍門志), 126–28; maps, 76, 84. See also Ling Yunyi; Liu Yaohui, Ying Jia
registered subjects. See min
religions. See under markers
ren qun人群 (grouping), 196
ren zhong人種 (“race”): Sun Yat-sen on, 192
Republican period (1912–49): creation of nation-state, 184, 192–98; five major min zu, 13, 193; rhetorics of assimilation and enlightenment, 184, 185, 195, 196–97
Right River右江, 177; region, 59, 60, 64, 82–90, 102, 126, 148
river system. See under Guangxi, geography of
Roman empire, 7
Rong戎: as category, 8, 167, 168
Rong融 county (Liuzhou), 106–107; in Republican period, 196
Rong容 county (Wuzhou), 54, 118
Rongshui融水 (Rong Zhou融州): “Yao”傜 in (Song dynasty), 152
Rossabi, Morris, 159
route books, 174. See also geographical knowledge; publishing
ru xue儒學. See schools: Confucian
ruo dian弱點 (weaknesses), 197
Russian empire, 7
salt: administration, 31; barter system, 171–72; smuggling, 30; trade, 121
san ze wei min, ju ze wei dao (“when dispersed [the man yi] behave as min; when assembled they become bandits”)散則為民聚則為盜, 116
Schein, Louisa, 203
schools: in Annam, 158; charity (yi xue), 187; Confucian (ru xue), 64, 71–72, 96; for man yi, 182, 187; for “minority nationalities,” 200; for “non-Han,” 197
Scott, James C., 208
“sedan-chair” ethnographies, 13
self-determination/self-rule, 193, 198–200
self-representations: of “minority nationalities,” 202–204, 207
Sha猀: as category, 191
shan善 (tractable) “Zhuang,” 124–25
Shan hai jing山海經. See Guideways through Mountains and Seas
Shan Yun山雲 (d. 1438), 39, 117–18, 122, 148
Shandong山東: as source of native chieftains, 69, 70, 77
Shang商 dynasty (ca. 1700–ca. 1100 BCE): and concept of centrality, 8
Shang Luo商輅 (1414–86), 135n41
Shangshixi Zhou上石西州: conversion of, 31–33
Shangsi Zhou上思州: conversion of, 31; Huangs of, 77
Shanzi山子: as category, 142, 143, 149, 191; depictions of, 146–47
shao shu min zu少數民族. See “minority nationalities”
shao shu min zu she hui li shi diao cha少數民族社會歷史調查 (investigation of the societies and histories of minority nationalities), project of, 201
she hui社會. See “society”
she ren舍人 (housemen), 36
Shen Defu沈德符 (1578–1642): Random Gleanings from the Wanli Period (Wanli ye huo bian萬曆野獲編), 61, 71
Shen Jiefu沈節甫 (1533–1601): Collection of Records (Ji lu hui bian紀錄彙編), 176
Shen Yi沈義 (js. 1448), 109
Shen Zhou沈周 (1427–1509), 52
sheng生 (“wild”) and shu熟 (“tame”), 138, 139, 139–40n2, 142 “Zhuang,” 155. See also Yao
Sheng Wannian盛萬年 (js. 1583), 50
Shi jing詩經. See Book of Poetry
Shi Wanxiang史萬祥, 112
Shin, Nathan C., xv
Shizhai十寨. See Bazhai
shu. See sheng and shu
Shui水: as “minority nationality,” 201
Shuixi水西 domain (Guizhou), 103
shu li踈理 (coarse), 27
shu黍 -millet, 151
shui ke si稅課司 (commercial-tax office), 34
Shunzhi順治 emperor (r. 1644–61): and education of miao yao, 186
si yi四夷 (“non-Chinese of the four quarters”): sources on, 165–70. See also man yi
Sicheng Zhou泗城州: Cens of, 70; disputes with Li Zhou, 82n29; mercury in, 49; native soldiers from, 90, 92; invasion by Tianzhou, 87; size of 64; troubles in, 102–103, 104
Sichuan四川 province: as borderland, 18, 29; rebellions in, 139; native domains in, 58. See also borderland, southern
Sien思恩 (Fu): Cens of, 83; conversion of, 31, 33, 86, 96; elevation from zhou, 82; under Cen Ying, 82–84, 95; invasion of Tianzhou, 86; min people in, 110; native police offices in, 97; population of, 41, 42, 84, 85; school in, 71
Sien思恩 county (Qingyuan): “Zhuang” in, 155
Siji Zhen思吉鎮, 101–102. See also native police offices
Siming Fu思明府, 76; descriptions of, 75; disputes with Annam, 76; recruitment of native soldiers in, 90–91; “regular” official posts in, 64–67; reliance on native soldiers from, 91; school in, 72; size of, 64, 75; troubles in, 78–80. See also Huangs (Siming)
Siming Lu路, 61
Siming Zhou州, 80
sinicization: China’s expansion as, 2; concept of, 2n1. See also assimilation
Sizhou思州 (Guizhou), 75
Skinner, G. William, 11n16
“society” (she hui): creation of, 196
soldiers. See military officers and soldiers
Song嵩, Mount (Henan), 173
Song宋 dynasty (960–1276): and man yi labels, 146, 147, 155; and native chieftains, 69, 70, 77, 84; political crises in, 159; travelers to Guangxi, 22–23; “Yao”傜 in, 150–53
Song Wenbing宋文炳: History of the Chinese Nation (Zhongguo min zu shi中國民族史), 193, 194
Song Yingxing宋應星 (jr. 1615): Exploitation of the Works of Nature (Tian gong kai wu天工開物), 179
Songjia宋家: as category, 141
Songxi松溪 (Fujian), 176
sources, limitations of, 16–17, 141; on northern borderland, 166; range of, 14–16; on si yi, 165–70; on southern borderland, 166–67; for travelers, 174–78. See also bi ji; encyclopedias and almanacs; gazetteers, local; illustrations; inscriptions, stone; maps
Southeast Asia. See “southern seas,” countries of
southern borderland/border zone. See borderland, southern
“southern seas,” countries of, 57, 165. See also Annam
“special education” (te zhong jiao yu), 197
Stalin, Joseph: on “nation,” 201
state, centralizing: limited reach of, 29–40, 58–74; representatives and agents of, 18, 112, 113; as term, 17. See also Ming dynasty
state-building: construction of boundaries as, 6–7, 185
“stockades.” See zhai
Strassberg, Richard, 170
Su Jun蘇濬 (1541–99): categorization of man yi, 143; categorization of “Yao,” 154; on native chieftains, 99; on productivity in Guangxi, 114; on sources of disorder, 113. See also General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1599)
Su Kuan蘇寬, 95
su粟 -millet, 151
Sun Yat-sen孫逸仙 (1866–1925): “Principle of the Nation” (Min zu zhu yi民族主義) 192–93; Three Principles of the People (San min zhu yi三民主義), 192
suo所 (battalions). See guard and battalion system
supreme commander (zong du), office of, 29, 36, 127
Tai泰, Mount (Shandong), 173
Taiping Lu太平路, 61
Taiping prefecture府: official population data of, 41, 42
Taiping Zhou州: subdivisions in, 68
Taiwan: quarantine, 187
Tan Qixiang譚其驤, xix
Tang唐 dynasty (618–907): Qiu Jun on, 162; references to “Moyao,” 150; travelers to Guangxi, 22; “Yao”徭 in, 150
Tang Geng唐耕 (jr. 1396), 37n25
Tang Lian唐鍊 (js. 1562), 110
Tang Xianzu湯顯祖 (1550–1616), 181
tax collection: decline of, 109–10; and demarcation of min and man yi, 107, 111–12, 150; from man yi, 114–15, 125, 134–35, 146, 149, 182; from native domains, 59, 72–73, 94, 109. See also fiscal problems
Tay (Dai)岱: as “minority nationality,” 204
te dian特點 (characteristics), 197
te zhong jiao yu特種教育. See “special education”
tenancy, 114, 122, 136–37
Teng藤 county (Wuzhou), 118, 119
Tian Rucheng田汝成 (js. 1526): career, 140; categorization of man yi, 140–141, 142; on “current of civilization” (wen feng), 28; on ineptitude of officials, 112; on “Ling,” 146; on perils, 25; on Rattan Gorge, 121, 122; Record of Things Heard on the Torrid Frontier (Yan jiao ji wen炎徼紀聞), 140–41, 142, 175; on “Yao,” 153; on “Zhuang,” 155–56
tian xia zhi li天下之理 (“coherence of all-under-heaven”), 162
Tian Zhen田真, 36
Tians田 (Sizhou), 75
Tianshun天順 emperor (r. 1457–64), 80, 160, 175. See also Zhengtong emperor
Tiantai天台, Mount (Zhejiang), 173
Tianzhou田州 (Fu), 84; demotion of, 98; descriptions of, 84–85; efforts to convert, 86, 89, 95–98; expansion of, 82; frightful of, 67; internal strife, 85–86; invasion of, 86; reliance on native soldiers from, 87, 90, 91, 92; school in, 96; subdivisions in, 68; tax exemption for, 73; as Tianning田寧, 97; war against, 87–89; war with Guishun, 100–101. See also Cen Meng; Cens (Tianzhou)
Tianzhou Lu路, 61, 82
Tibet and Tibetans, 184, 186, 192, 193, 206
tigers, 25, 51, 52–55
tin, 62–63
ting fu聽撫 (submissive), 128
tong hua同化. See assimilation
tong yi duo min zu guo jia See “unitary multi-national state”
“topographical paintings,” 179–80
tou mu頭目. See native headmen
travel: costs of, 172; for edification, 99, 170, 172; of exiles, 22, 45, 172; of laborers, 49; of merchants, 45, 48–49, 170, 171–72, 174; perils of, 11, 22, 25, 26, 27–28, 33–34, 99, 117; popularity of, 170
travel writings: commemorative inscriptions, 15; diaries, 23, 25, 99, 176; as forms of geographical knowledge, 175–77; range of, 13, 176
tribe, concept of, 1
tributary relations, 61, 62–63, 188
“tribute students” (gong sheng), 71. See also Imperial Academy
Tsin, Michael, 196
tu圖 (illustrations), 129–30; tu li圖例 (notes on conventions), 130; tu shuo圖說 (profiles), 129. See also Essential Information for Governing Guangxi
Tu土: as category of “non-Han,” 196
tu土 (native), 19
tu bing土兵. See native soldiers
tu guan土官 (native official), 19n24. See also native chieftains
tu mu土目 (native chief ), 97
tu ren土人 (native people), 138
tu si土司, 19n24. See also native chieftaincy; native chieftains; native domains
tu xun jian si土巡檢司. See native police offices
tu zhi fu土知府 (native prefect), tu zhi zhou州 (native subprefect), and tu zhi xian縣 (native county magistrate), 61. See also native chieftains
tu zhong土中 (“central lands”), 8
Tumu土木 debacle, 159–60
tun tian屯田. See military farms
Union Gazetteer of the Great Ming (Da Ming yi tong zhi ), 85, 175
“unitary multi-national state” (tong yi duo min zu guo jia), 2n2, 13, 184, 199, 202
unity and diversity: of Chinese people, 192–98, 202
Veritable Records of the Ming (Ming shi lu), 14, 79
Vietnam. See Annam
violence. See disorder
wai yi外夷 (“non-Chinese from beyond”), 104
Waldron, Arthur, 160
wan wu zhi suo gui萬物之所歸 (“where ten thousands things return”), 28
Wancheng Zhou萬承州, 77
Wang Ao王翺 (1384–1467), 138, 139, 141, 142, 143
wang fu王府. See princely estate (Guilin)
Wang Ji王濟 (d. 1540): on Cen Meng, 89n39; Hand-held Mirror for Daily Inquiries in the Gentleman’s Hall (Jun zi tang ri xun shou jing君子堂日詢手鏡), 47, 176; on Heng Zhou, 47–48, 176–77; on “Shanzi,” 146–47
wang ming zhi peng亡命之朋. See outlaws and loafers
Wang Qi王啟 (d. 1534), 109
Wang Qi王圻 (js. 1565): Collected Illustrations of Heaven, Earth, and People (San cai tu hui三才圖會), 169–70
Wang Sen汪森 (1653–1726): Anthology of Miscellanies of Guangxi ( Yue xi cong zai粵西叢載), 21, 48; General Anthologies of Guangxi (Yue xi tong zai粵西通載), 14–15, 175; sources used by, 15, 175
Wang Shangxue王尚學 (js. 1538), 113
Wang Shixing王士性 (1547–98): categorization of man yi, 138, 141, 142; on distribution of man yi, 110; on “dragons” (long), 28–29; on firsthand observations, 177; Further Elucidations on my Extensive Record of Travels (Guang zhi yi廣志繹), 177, 178; on geography of Guangxi, 27, 177; influence of, 178; on “Lang,” 148–49; on “Ling” and “Dong,” 147; Notes on Travels to the Five Marchmounts (Wu yue you cao五嶽遊草), 174; penchant for travel, 172–74, 181; Record of Extensive Travels (Guang you zhi廣遊志), 27, 138, 142; on tenancy, 114n13; on “Yao,” 153–54; on “Zhuang,” 157
Wang Shizhen王世貞 (1526–90), 179n64
Wang Shou王受, 96, 97
Wang Shouren王守仁 (1472–1529): campaign against “Yao,” 121; deployment of native soldiers, 91; in Tianzhou; 96–98
Wang Tongling王桐齡 (b. 1878): History of the Chinese Nation (Zhongguo min zu shi中國民族史), 193, 194
Wang Yangming王陽明. See Wang Shouren
Wang Zhen王振 (d. 1449), 159
Wang Zhenggong王正功 (1133–1203), 22–23
Wang Zongmu王宗沐 (1523–91), 172–73
Wanli萬曆 emperor (r. 1573–1620), 162, 174
Ward, Julian, 180
warfare: among native domains (see under native domains); types of, 126. See also disorder
wei衛 and wei suo衛所. See guard and battalion system
Wei Chaowei韋朝威, 123
Wei Chaozhen韋潮振, 106
Wei Gongxin韋公信, 136–37
Wei Huan魏煥 (js. 1529): Notes on the Northern Borders of the Ming Imperium (Huang Ming jiu bian kao皇明九邊考), 166
Wei Jun魏濬 (js. 1604): categorization of man yi, 141, 142, 147; in Guangxi, 176; Miscellanea of Guangxi (Xi shi er西事珥), 142, 175, 176–77; Miscellaneous Notes on Guangxi (Qiao nan suo ji嶠南瑣記), 177n61
Wei Yinbao韋銀豹, 123, 125
Wei Zhongxian魏忠賢 (1568–1627), 53
wen fang文房 (secretary), 69
wen feng文風. See civilization: “current” of
wen jiao文教 (rituals and institutions), 103, 104, 158. See also civilization
wen ming ren文明人. See “enlightened people”
wen ren文人 (“men of culture”): pressure on, 182–83
wen xue shi文學史. See literary history
West River西江, 11, 23, 24, 177
White, Richard, 2n2
Wiens, Herold J., 1
wo倭 (“non-Chinese” along southeast coast), 138
wo zhong you ni, ni zhong you wo (“you are among us, and we are among you”)我中有你,你中有我, 202
“wolf soldiers” (lang bing). See under native soldiers
women: as native chieftains, 62, 69; gu poisoning and “Zhuang,” 156–57, 182, 196. See also markers: marriage and mating practices
Wu Chengzuo吳承祚, 102, 103
wu gong武功 (military achievements), 104, 158
wu yue五嶽. See Five Marchmounts
wu zu gong he五族共和 (“peaceful coexistence of five major nationalities”), 193
Wu Liang吳良 (d. 1381), 106
Wu, Peiyi, 172
Wu Tingju吳廷舉 (js. 1487), 38
Wu Wenhua (1521–98), 135; on taxes, 110
Wuhu烏滸: as category, 8
Wuxing吳興 (Zhejiang), 176
Wuxuan武宣 battalion (Liuzhou), 37
Wuxuan武宣 county (Xunzhou), 117
Wuzhou梧州 prefecture: accessibility of, 46; floods in, 50 “bandits” in, 118–19; intermingling of min and man yi in, 110, 134; “Lang” in, 134, 149; military headquarters at, 36, 127; native soldiers in, 91; population of, 41, 42, 45–46; tigers in, 53–54; travel routes to and from, 25, 117; “Yao” in, 134, 154 “Zhuang” in, 134
xi (“lineage”), 194, 195
xi dong谿峒 settlements, 155
xia夏, 17, 28. See also “Chinese”
Xia Yan夏言 (1482–1548), 160
xian dai hua現代化. See modernization
xian jie tong hua yu Han現皆同化於漢 (“now all assimilated to Han”), 196
Xiandu仙都, Mount (Zhejiang), 173
xiang鄉 (cantons), 130
Xiang象 commandery, 10, 51
xiang hua向化 (coming to transform): rhetoric of, 106. See also assimilation; gui hua
Xiang River湘江, 23, 24, 33
Xiangwu Zhou向武州, 61
Xiao Daheng蕭大亨 (1532–1612): Customs of the non-Chinese in the North (Yi su ji夷俗記 or Bei lu feng su北虜風俗), 166
Xiao Tengfeng蕭騰鳳 (js. 1568), 67
Xie Hu謝湖 (js. 1487), 67
Xie Jin解縉 (1369–1415), 77n24
Xie Zhaozhe謝肇淛 (1567–1624): on geography of Guangxi, 23; Customs of the Southern Region (Baiyue feng tu zhi百粵風土記), 175
xin hu ren zhong zhi gai liang信乎人種之改良 (“human races can indeed be improved”), 197
Xincheng Xian忻城縣 (Qingyuan): conversion of, 94–95; “Zhuang in,” 155
xing性 (human nature), 181
Xing’an興安 county (Song dynasty): “Yao”傜 in, 152
Xinjiang (Eastern Turkestan), 184, 186, 193
Xining西寧 county (Guangdong): “Lang” in, 149
xiu er wen秀而文 (refined and cultured), 25
Xiuren修仁 county (Pingle): decline of population in, 110, 111; military campaign in, 119; “Yao” of, 188, 189; “Zhuang” in, 155
Xiyan西延 police office (Quan Zhou), 129
Xu Guangqi徐光啟 (1562–1633), 180
Xu Hongzu徐弘祖 (1586–1641): appetite for geographical knowledge, 175; emphasis on empirical knowledge, 180; on native chieftains in Guangxi, 99–103; penchant for travel, 172, 181
Xu Lun許論 (1495–1566): Illustrations and Descriptions of the Northern Borders (Jiu bian tu lun九邊圖論), 166
Xu Song徐松 (1781–1848): Essential Documents of the Song (Song hui yao宋會要), 151
Xu Songshi徐松石: History of the People of the Yue River Region (Yuejiang liu yu ren min shi粵江流域人民史), 198
Xu Xiake徐霞客. See Xu Hongzu
xuan fu shi宣撫使 /xuan wei shi宣慰使 (pacification commissioner), 61. See also native chieftains
Xuande宣德 emperor (r. 1426–35), 76, 158
xun馴 (tranquil), 25
xun fu巡撫. See Grand Coordinator
xun jian si, native. See native police offices
Xunxiang馴象 Guard, 45, 51, 52n49
Xunzhou潯州 prefecture: hostile environment of, 20–21, 26; native soldiers needed in, 39, 77, 79, 148; official population data of, 41, 42. See also Rattan Gorge; Yao
Xus許 (Wancheng Zhou), 77
Ya犽: as category, 191
ya雅 (gracious), 25
ya (“dumb”) zhang , 28. See also miasma
Yan Congjian嚴從簡 (js. 1559): Exhaustive Inquiries on the Strange Lands (Shu yu zhou zi lu殊域周咨錄), 165
Yan Song嚴嵩 (1480–1565), 160
Yang楊 clan (Bozhou), 75
Yang Fang楊芳 (js. 1577), 39, 128–29, 130. See also Essential Information for Governing Guangxi
Yang Jing楊璟 (d. 1382), 57n2
Yang Shen楊慎 (1488–1559): 92; on firsthand observations, 177; Guideways through Mountains and Seas Annotated (Shan hai jing bu zhu山海經補注), 167
Yang Shubao楊叔寶, 54–55
Yang Tiyuan楊體元, 178
Yanghuang稼獚: as category, 141
Yangli Zhou養利州: conversion of, 31
Yangshuo陽朔 (county): floods in, 49; min and man yi ratio in, 111
Yangzi River揚子江 system: Ling Canal as link to, 11
Yao猺: “bandits,” 22, 77, 107, 117–22; as category, 4, 19, 138, 140, 141, 142–43, 144, 188, 191, 197, 206; categories of (Daiban戴板; Daliang大良; Gaoshan高山; Panlong盤龍; Pingdi平地), 154; and guo shan bang, 17; in Huaiyuan, 144, 145, 147, 181; in Lingui, 154; Ming depictions of, 153–54; nature of, 113, 116, 182; “proliferation” of, 110; of Rattan Gorge, 91, 117–22; schooling of, 182; sheng and shu, 138, 139, 143, 154; subsistence needs of, 121, 153; as tax-payers, 114–15, 182; as tenants, 114, 136; “white” and “black,” 143, 154; in Wuzhou, 134, 154; of Xiuren, 188, 189. See also Rattan Gorge; “minority nationalities”
Yao傜: “bandits,” 152; Fan Chengda’s depiction of, 151–53; Xu Songshi on, 198
Yao徭: as category in Tang dynasty, 150. See also Moyao
Yao瑤: as “minority nationality,” 201; self-representation of, 203
yao dong猺峒 (native settlements), 134
yao lao猺獠: as generic “non-Chinese,” 26
Yao Mo (1465–1538), 68, 87–89, 96
Yao sha Yao, bu dong chao (“when a Yao kills a Yao, the imperial court would not be disturbed [by the Yao]”)猺殺猺不動朝, 116
yao wang藥王 (“kings of poisons”), 156. See also gu poisoning
ye man ren野蠻人. See “barbaric people”
Ye Sheng葉盛 (1420–74), 91, 92, 109, 148
Ye Xianggao葉向高 (1559–1627): Notes on the non-Chinese of the Four Quarters (Si yi kao四夷考), 165
Ye Zheng葉禎, 34
Yellow Emperor黃帝, xiii, 194, 198
Yellow Registers (huang ce黃冊), 136
yi夷: as generic “non-Chinese,” 12, 19, 43, 93, 96, 98, 106, 107, 113, 142, 163, 164, 165, 181. See also hua and yi; man yi
Yi夷: as category, 8
Yi彝: as “minority nationality,” 201; construction of identity as history of, 207; documents, 16; identity in making of nation-state, 208
yi驛. See courier stations
yi di夷狄: as generic “non-Chinese,” 113, 162, 163, 181
Yi Hai易海, 21
yi lao夷獠 (of the Western Plains), 148
yi li疫癘. See plagues
yi xue義學. See schools: charity
yi yi gong yi以夷攻夷 (using “non-Chinese” to tackle “non-Chinese”), 93
yi yi zhi yi以夷制夷 (using “non-Chinese” to control “non-Chinese”), 12
yi yu異域 (strange country; foreign region), 25
Yi yu tu zhi異域圖志 (Illustrations and Records of Foreign Regions), 170
Yi Zhou宜州 (Song dynasty), 155
Yidu益都 county (Song dynasty), 70
Yin尠: as category, 142, 143, 191
yin陰 and yang陽 forces, 163
Ying Jia應檟 (1494–1554): Record of the Office of the Supreme Commander at Cangwu, 126–28
Yingtian應天 (early Ming capital), 23
Yining義寧 county (Guilin), 144: categories of man yi, 144; disorders in, 116–17; levels of “submission” of man yi in, 128; “Yao”傜 in (Song dynasty), 152
Yishan宜山 county (Qingyuan): encroached by Sien (Fu), 84, 95; “Zhuang” in, 155
Yong River邕江: flooding of, 51
Yongan Zhou永安州 (Pingle): creation of, 31, 135
Yongding Si永定司 (Qingyuan): creation of, 95
Yongfu永福 county (Guilin): “Zhuang” in, 155, 156, 157
Yongkang Xian永康縣: conversion of, 31
Yongle永樂 emperor (r. 1403–24): and southern border, 76; and northern border, 158
Yongle Encyclopedia (Yongle da dian永樂大典), 132
Yongning邕寧 county: “evolution” of “non-Han” in, 196–97; floods in, 51
Yongning Zhou永寧州 (Guilin): elevation of Gutian as, 125; map of, 144, 145. See also Gutian
Yongshun Si永順司 (Qingyuan): creation of, 95
Yongzheng雍正 emperor (r. 1723–35): and conversion of native domains, 186
Yongzhou邕州 (Song dynasty), 70
you dian優點 (strengths), 197
you shou ba min游手罷民. See outlaws and loafers
Yu Dayou俞大猶 (1503–79): military campaign, 124–25. See also Gutian
yu ding餘丁 (surplus men), 36
Yu Ji虞集 (1272–1348), 139, 155
Yu Qian于謙 (1398–1457), 36n23; 139n2, 159–60
yu tu輿圖 (administrative geography), 127–28. See also maps; Record of the Office of the Supreme Commander at Cangwu
yu yi di馭夷狄 (“subordinating the non-Chinese”), 162. See also Qiu Jun
Yu Zijun余子俊 (1429–89), 160
Yu Xiangdou余象斗 (fl. 1596): Authoritative Source for Myriad Uses (Santai wang yong zheng zong三台萬用正宗), 169–70
Yuan元 dynasty (1271–1368): “alien” rule of, 10; legacies of, 31, 34; and native chieftaincy, 58, 61; “Zhuang” in, 155
yuan e原額 (original size): of military population, 36
Yuan Hongdao袁宏道 (1568–1610), 180–81
Yuan Shikai袁世凱 (1859–1916), 193
yue越: as generic “non-Chinese,” 115, 164
Yue越: as category, 8
Yue Hesheng (b. 1569), 23, 28
Yulin Zhou鬱林州 (Wuzhou), 54
Yunnan雲南 province: as borderland, 18, 29; in comparative perspective, 10, 11; incorporation of, 8, 73; miao albums of, 190; native domains in, 58; rebellions in, 92; sources on, 166
Yuyue於越: as category, 164
zhai寨 (“stockades”), 88, 106, 119, 128
zhang瘴. See miasma
Zhang Fu張福, 37
Zhang Hong張宏 (1577–ca. 1652): Ten Scenes of Yue, 179–80
zhang guan長官 (squad leader; chief) and zhang guan si司 (chief ’s office), 61, 95. See also native chieftains; native domains
Zhang Ji張吉 (1451–1518), 25, 111
Zhang Jing張經 (d. 1555), 124
Zhang Juzheng張居正 (1525–82), 174
Zhang Li張禮, 37
Zhang Mingfeng張鳴鳳 (jr. 1552): Famous Places of Guilin (Gui sheng桂勝), 175; Historical Notes on Guilin (Gui gu桂故), 175
Zhang Ning張寧 (js. 1454): Miscellaneous Words (Fangzhou za yan方洲雜言), 21
Zhang Qiyun張其昀: Study of the Chinese Nation (Zhongguo min zu zhi中國民族志), 193
Zhang Qize張七澤: Miscellanea of Wuzhou and Xunzhou (Wu Xun za pei梧潯雜佩), 175
Zhang Xuan張瑄 (1417–94), 92
Zhangs張 (Lingui, Guilin), 37–38, 46
Zhao Fu趙輔 (d. 1486), 52
zhao fu招撫 (“summoned and soothed”), 147
Zhao Fuhui趙福惠, 70, 71
Zhao Renshou趙仁壽, 70
zhao tao shi招討使 (pacification commissioner), 61. See also native chieftains
Zhao Yangsu趙養素 (1564–1629), 69, 71
Zhaoping昭平 county (Pingle): creation of, 31; disorders in, 135–37
Zhaos趙 (Guangxi), 75
Zhaos趙 (Encheng Zhou), 69, 70
Zhaos趙 (Long Zhou), 77
Zhe E者額, 71
Zhejiang浙江 province: population density of, 44
Zhen Dexiu真德秀 (1178–1235): Extended Meaning of the Great Learning (Da xue yan yi大學衍義), 161
Zhen’an Fu鎮安府: succession crisis in, 100–101, 103; tax quota for, 72, 73
Zheng Xiao鄭曉 (1499–1566): Notes on the non-Chinese of the Four Quarters of the Ming Imperium (Huang Ming si yi kao皇明四夷考), 165
Zhengtong正統 emperor (r. 1436–49), 79–80, 93, 94; Tumu debacle, 159–60. See also Tianshun emperor
Zhong狆: as category, 191
zhong種 (“race”; “species”): “white” and “black,” 194, 195; Zhuang, 196–97
zhong guo中國. See “central dominion”
zhong lei種類 (variety; type) and zhong lei fei yi (“not of the same variety”), 138
zhong tu中土 (“central lands”), 8
zhong yuan中原 /zhong zhou中州. See “central plains”
zhong zu種族 (“race”), 198; as term, 192
Zhongguo中國. See “China”
Zhongguo ren中國人 (Chinese people): Sun Yat-sen on, 192
Zhonghua min zu中華民族. See “Chinese”: as nation
Zhongjia狆家: as category, 141
zhou州 (subdivision; subprefecture)
Zhou周 dynasty (ca. 1100–256 BCE): and concept of centrality, 8
Zhou Li周禮, 48–49
Zhou Qi周琦 (js. 1481), 115–16, 123–24
Zhou Qufei周去非 (js. 1163), 152n22
Zhou Zhenhe周振鶴, 178
Zhouan Zhen周安鎮, 101–102, 103. See also native police offices
zhu主 (“hosts”), 18
Zhu Hui朱惠, 38
Zhu Xi朱熹 (1130–1200), 180
Zhuang獞: as category, 4, 19, 138, 141, 142–43, 144, 155, 188, 191, 197, 206; categories of (of Fu River; of Hubei湖北; of Right River; Southern南), 157; depictions of, 154–57; and gu poisoning, 156, 182; of Gutian, 122–25; in Huaiyuan, 144, 145, 147, 181; nature of, 113, 116; “proliferation” of, 110; schooling of, 182; sheng and shu, 155; as taxpayers, 114–15, 182; as tenants, 114, 122, 136; women, 156–57, 182, 196; in Wuzhou, 134; in Yongning, 196; zhong, 196. See also man yi
Zhuang壯: as “minority nationality,” 201
Zhuang僮: Xu Songshi on (in Republican period), 198
zhuang ding撞丁 (“men who collide”), 155
Zhuang sha Zhuang, bu gao zhuang (“when a Zhuang kills a Zhuang, an official complaint would not be filed [by the Zhuang]”) , 116
Zhuang zu zai xian壯族在線 (“Zhuang nationality online”), 204
zi zhi qu自治區. See autonomous administrative areas
zong du總督. See supreme commander
Zou Yuanbiao鄒元標 (1551–1624), 174
zu族 (“nation”; “nationality”), 194, 197. See also min zu
Zu xun祖訓 (“Ancestral Instructions”). See under Hongwu emperor
zui chun cui de Han ren最純粹的漢人 (“the purest Han people”), 198
zui e最惡 (most repugnant), 181
Zuo Zhou左州, conversion of, 31
Zuo’s Tradition (Zuo zhuan左傳), 103