Abelson, R. P., 164, 169, 173, 176
Abrams, D., 239, 247
Acklin, M. W., 205, 213
Adams, D. A., 29, 34
Akaike, H., 153, 157
Akers, C., 221, 230
Aksan, 188
Alwin, D. F., 67, 73
Anderson, C. A., 114, 127
Anderson, J. R., 153, 156, 157
Anderson, T., 206, 214
Arkes, H. R., 123, 127
Aronson, E., 167, 168, 169, 176, 240, 242, 246, 248
Asch, S. E., 241, 247
Babyak, M. A., 140, 142
Badecker, W., 95, 105
Bain, J. D., 149, 158
Baker, R. A., 233, 247
Bakker, T., 68, 72
Balasubramanian, V., 153, 158
Balota, D. A., 23, 29, 34, 35
Banaji, M. R., 26, 34
Barlow, D. H., 201, 213
Baron, J., 110, 111, 127
Barrett, S., 233, 247
Bartha, M., 100, 107
Bassok, M., 112, 127
Bateman, F., 220, 231
Baumgardner, M. H., 233, 248
Bazerman, M. H., 116, 127
Bearden, W. O., 246, 249
Beilock, 189
Belli, R., 69, 72
Belson, W. A., 63, 72
Bem, D. J., 161, 163, 170, 172, 174, 176, 225, 226, 227, 230
Berger, R. E., 225, 231
Berkowitz, L., 241, 248
Berndt, R. S., 95, 96, 105, 108
Bernstein, M., 290, 296
Berntson, G. G., 124, 127
Bickman, L., 238, 241, 247, 248
Bierman, D. J., 229, 231
Billig, M., 169, 176
Binder, R. L., 211, 214
Binker, A. J., 13
Bjork, R. A., 177, 294
Blossom-Stach, C., 95, 108
Blumer, C., 123, 127
Bodenhausen, G. V., 66, 72, 123, 127
Boettger, R., 126, 130
Boring, E. G., 15, 35
Bowen, B. D., 60, 74
Bower, B., 190, 191
Bowman, C. G., 92, 105
Bozdogan, H., 153, 157
Bradburn, N. M., 55, 61, 63, 65, 67, 71, 72, 74
Breedin, S., 99, 100, 107
Brehm, J., 172, 176
Brendl, C. M., 179, 195
Brescoll, V., 180, 194
Brewin, C. R., 92, 105
Briere, J., 92, 105
Broad, C. D., 217, 231
Broadbent, D., 148, 157
Broughton, R. S., 227, 230
Brown, D., 92, 105
Brown, N. R., 68, 72
Brown, S. C., 148, 158
Bundy, R., 169, 176
Bush, V., 154, 158
Butler, L. D., 92, 93, 106
Butterworth, B., 100, 102, 106
Caccioppo, J., 123, 129
Cacioppo, J. T., 124, 127
Campbell, A., 61, 72
Campbell, D. T., 44, 48, 52, 53, 91, 106, 133, 142
Campbell, M. C., 245, 247
Campbell, R., 102, 106
Cannell, C. F., 68, 72
Cantril, H., 113, 128, 259, 269
Caramazza, A., 95, 98, 105, 106
Carlsmith, J. M., 169, 176
Carr, 189
Cary, M., 146, 158
Ceci, S. J., 81, 88, 92, 106
Chaiken, S., 123, 127
Chambless, D. L., 206, 209, 213
Chaves, J. F., 235, 249
Cheng, P. W., 125, 129
Chiarello, C., 99, 106
Chizk, 188
Christensen, A., 207, 208, 214
Cialdini, R. B., 57, 72, 236, 241, 245, 246, 247, 249
Cicirelli, V. G., 38, 50, 52
Clancy, S. A., 29, 31, 35, 92, 93, 106, 108
Clark, 202
Clark, F., 62, 65, 73
Clark, H. H., 63, 66, 72
Clarke, S., 149, 159
Click, B. A., 6, 13
Cochrane, S., 239, 247
Cohen, J., 146, 158
Cohen, N. J., 99, 106
Cohn, M. A., 194
Coltheart, M., 96, 101, 106, 107
Colvin, C. R., 204, 214
Combs, B., 118, 129
Conte, J., 92, 105
Conway, B. E., 290, 296
Cook, T. D., 44, 53, 133, 142
Copp, J.
Corballis, M., 106
Cordray, D. W., 48, 53
Cortese, M. J., 29, 34
Couper, M. P., 57, 72
Craik, F. I. M., 148, 158
Crain, A. L., 168, 176
Cronbach, 200
Crowder, R. G., 26, 34, 100, 106
Culkin, J., 92, 108
Culver, R. B., 258, 262, 263, 269
Cupples, L., 101, 106
Davenport, J. L., 186, 194
Davis, S. N., 76, 88
Davison, W. P., 243, 248
Dawes, R. M., 111, 127
Dawson, E., 125, 127
Deary, I. J., 180, 188, 194
Deese, J., 22, 29, 35
Dell, G. S., 96, 97, 106
DeLoache, J., 177, 294
DeMaio, T. J., 71, 72
Dennis, S., 143, 145, 158, 291, 293
DePaulo, B. M., 246, 249
Der, G., 180, 188, 194
Derr, P., 225, 231
Diamond, R. M., 2, 12
Ditto, P. H., 125, 128
Dodson, C. S., 92, 106
Dolan, S. L., 206, 208, 214
Doosje, B., 125, 128
Dougherty, B. C., 6, 13
Downey, G., 179, 194
Duchek, J. M., 29, 34
Dumais, S. T., 156, 158
Dunning, D., 11, 13, 290, 296
Dupous, 188
Eagly, A. H., 123, 127
Eells, E., 40, 53
Elam, L. E., 145, 158
Elmes, D. G., 20, 35, 131, 142
Ennis, R., 6, 12
Epley, N., 5, 13
Erlebacher, A. E., 48, 52
Ertel, S., 227, 231
Eskenazi, J., 235, 249
Exner, J. E., 204, 213
Eyre, D. P., 92, 106
Falk, R., 118, 128
Fantaske, P., 6, 13
Farquhar, P. H., 237, 248, 249
Faust, D., 48, 53
Faust, M., 99, 106
Feher, E., 95, 108
Feldman, P., 267, 269
Ferrari, D. C., 225, 231
Fetkewicz, J. M., 92, 108
Feynman, R. P., 233, 248
Firstenberg, I. R., 9, 13
Fischer, S. C., 6, 13
Fischoff, B., 118, 128, 129
Fisher, C. B., 271, 278, 284, 288
Fisher, G., 68, 72
Fiske, S. T., 123, 128
Flament, C., 169, 176
Fleiss, J. L., 210, 215
Florio, 205, 214
Fodor, J. A., 96, 106
Folkman, J., 39, 53
Foltz, P. W., 156, 158
Fong, G. T., 10, 13, 125, 128, 129
Ford, M. R., 211, 213
Forman, 188
Franz, E. A., 180, 195
Frederick, S., 123, 128
Freedman, M. L., 100, 107
Frey, D., 258, 269
Freyd, J. J., 26, 29, 35
Freyd, P. P., 92, 108
Fried, A. L., 271
Fried, C. B., 168, 176
Friedman, O., 179, 194
Friestad, M., 243–245, 248
Fullilove, M. T., 92, 107
Funder, D. C., 204, 214
Gable, S., 179, 194
Gage, N. L., 106
Gagnon, D. A., 96, 106
Galinsky, A. D., 5, 13
Gallo, D. A., 22, 35
Garb, H. N., 204, 205, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215
Garske, J. P., 206, 214
Gates, A. I., 16, 35
Gerkens, D. R., 92, 93, 109
Gilbert, 189
Gilbert, D. T., 168, 176, 251, 269, 295
Gilbert, G. N., 144, 159
Gilliland, T. R., 92, 93, 109
Gillund, G., 149, 158
Gilovich, T., 5, 13, 110, 113, 114, 119, 121, 125, 127, 128, 129, 256, 269, 291, 292
Gist, P. L., 259, 270
Gleaves, D. H., 26, 29, 35, 92, 93, 106, 109
Gliner, M. D., 239, 249
Goldin-Meadow, S., 180, 195
Goldrick, M., 100, 108
Gomez, P., 153, 159
Goodglass, H., 95, 108
Gorenstein, E. E., 199, 214
Green, D., 101, 107
Greene, D., 129
Greenwald, A. G., 233, 235, 245, 248, 249
Griffin, D., 122, 128
Grigorenko, E. L., 7, 14, 291, 292
Grill-Spector, K., 179, 187, 188, 194
Gronlund, S. D., 145, 158
Grove, 205, 214
Groves, R. M., 55, 57, 72, 73
Gruber, H. E., 76, 88
Guarnaccia, 200
Gurland, B. J., 210, 215
Haendiges, A., 95, 105
Halpern, D. F., 1, 3, 7, 13, 272, 280, 288, 289
Hammond, D. C., 92, 105
Hansel, C. E. M., 220, 231
Hanslin, J. M., 121, 128
Hanten, G., 102, 104, 107
Harper, S., 223, 231
Harris, R. J., 148, 158
Hashroudi, S., 92, 107
Hastorf, A. H., 113, 128, 259, 269
Henkel, L. A., 32, 35
Herbers, J., 65, 73
Hermann, D., 61, 73
Herrmann, 99
Herrnstein, R., 81, 89
Hershey, J., 118, 128
Hertwig, R., 183, 195
Hickok, G., 101, 107, 108
Hillis, A., 95, 106
Hilton, J. L., 259, 270
Hines, T., 233, 248
Hintzman, D. L., 143, 148, 149, 158
Hippler, H. J., 62, 64, 65, 73
Hitch, G., 100, 107
Hoagwood, K., 284, 288
Hoffman, S., 6, 13
Hogg, M. A., 239, 247
Holland, P. W., 41, 53
Hollon, S. D., 209, 213
Honorton, C., 223, 224, 225, 230, 231
Horvitz, T., 237, 248
Horwitz, A. V.
House, P., 129
Hovland, C. I., 234, 248
Howard, D., 96, 102, 106, 107
Hubbard, M., 114, 129
Hull, R., 90, 101, 109, 291, 294
Humphreys, M. S., 145, 149, 158
Huttenlocher, J., 186, 195
Hyman, R., 218, 219, 220, 221, 223, 224, 225, 231, 292
Inglis, A. L., 101, 106
Iverson, G. J., 153, 159
Jackman, I., 232, 248
Jacobson, N. S., 207, 208, 214
Jacoby, L. L., 179, 195
James, W., 251, 269
Janis, I. L., 117, 128, 234, 248
Jarvis, W. T., 233, 247
Jenkins, J. J., 27, 35
Jensen, P. S., 284, 288
Jepson, C., 10, 13
Johns, 188
Johnson, E. J., 118, 128
Johnson, M. K., 32, 35, 92, 106, 107
Jones, E. A., 6, 13
Jones, W. H., 255, 262, 263, 264, 270
Jordan, C. H., 160, 172, 174, 176, 293, 294
Joy, S. M., 180, 195
Judd, C. M., 114, 130
Kahneman, D., 48, 53, 117, 119, 123, 128, 130, 168, 176, 183, 195, 211
Kantowitz, B. H., 20, 35, 131, 142
Kanwisher, N., 179, 187, 188, 194
Kaplan, R., 92, 107
Karpicke, J. D., 16, 35
Kass, R. E., 153, 158
Katsev, R. D., 241, 250
Kay, J., 101, 107
Keller, J.
Kelly, I. W., 258, 269
Keltner, D., 258, 269
Kendell, R. E., 202, 214
Kensinger, E. A., 31, 35
Kerr, N. L., 117, 128
Kessler, M.
Ketron, J. L., 290, 296
Keysar, B., 5, 13, 122, 128
Keyser, A., 95, 107
Khaneman, D., 214
Kim, C., 153, 158
Kim, W., 153, 159
Kintsch, W., 143, 149, 154, 158, 291, 293
Kirmani, A., 245, 247
Klahr, D., 179, 195
Klonsky, E. D., 196, 203, 214, 294
Knäuper, B., 62, 65, 73
Knowlton, B., 99, 109
Kochanska, 188
Koehler, J. J., 186, 195
Kohn, S. E., 96, 107
Kolar, D. W., 204, 214
Kolb, L. C., 92, 107
Kolk, H., 95, 107
Konkel, A., 179, 195
Konold, C., 118, 128
Koomen, W., 125, 128
Kouider, 188
Kramer, G. P., 117, 128
Krantz, D. H., 10, 13, 125, 128
Krosnick, J. A., 55, 60, 67, 73, 74
Krueger, R. F., 203, 214
Kruger, J., 11, 13, 290, 296
Krull, D. S., 168, 176
Kuhn, T., 144, 158
Kunda, Z., 163, 176, 255, 256, 258
Kunreuther, H., 118, 128
LaFrance, M., 180, 194
Laham, D., 156, 158
Lalich, J., 233, 237, 249
Landauer, T. K., 156, 158
Lane, S. M., 186, 195
Lanna, P. A., 262, 263, 269
Lannon, P. B., 210, 215
Lasko, N. B., 93, 108
Lavrakas, P. J., 55, 74
Layman, M., 118, 129
Leahey, T. H., 148, 158
Lebiere, C., 153, 157
Lee, M. D., 153, 159
Lehman, D. R., 125, 129
Leippe, M. R., 233, 248
Lempert, R. O., 125, 129
Lenzenweger, M. F., 29, 31, 35
Lepper, M. R., 113, 114, 127, 129, 130, 245, 248, 258, 269
Lerner, J., 126, 129
Lesch, M., 100, 107
Leslie, A. M., 179, 194
Lesser, R., 101, 107
Levine, J. M., 117, 129
Lewin, K., 240, 248
Lewis, D. A., 40, 53, 210, 214
Liberman, A., 123, 127
Lichtenstein, S., 118, 129
Lief, H. I., 92, 107
Lief, H. J., 92, 108
Lilienfeld, S. O., 204, 205, 215, 233, 248
Lin, D. Y., 114, 129
Lindsay, D. S., 92, 107
Linebarger, M. C., 95, 96, 107
Livesley, W. J., 202, 214
Locke, J., 38
Lockwood, P. J., 163, 176
Loftus, E. F., 92, 93, 106, 107
Logothetis, N. K., 179, 195
Lohr, J. M., 233, 248
Lopez, 200
Lopez, D. F., 125, 128
Lord, C. G., 113, 129, 245, 248, 258, 269
Lubart, T. I., 294, 296
Lund, F. H., 237, 248
Lustig, C., 179, 195
Lynn, S. J., 233, 248
Lyons, J. A., 210, 214
Macchi, L., 186, 195
MacCoun, R. J., 117, 128
Mackie, J. L., 39, 53, 290, 296
Magidson, J., 48, 53
Mai, H. P., 62, 66, 73
Manicavasagar, V., 92, 107
Mann, R. D., 234, 248
Manschreck, T. C., 207, 214
Mark, M. M., 48, 53
Markman, A. B., 179, 195
Markus, G. B., 69, 73
Markwick, B., 220, 231
Martens, 188
Martin, 291, 294
Martin, N., 96, 106
Martin, R. C., 90, 95, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 107, 108
Massey, J. T., 57, 74
Masty, J. K., 271
Mather, M., 32, 35
Mazzucchi, A., 95, 108
McCabe, D. P., 15, 31, 32, 33, 35, 292
McCloskey, M., 98, 106
McDermott, K. B., 22, 23, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 93, 108, 131, 292
McFall, 196
McGuire, W. J., 234, 248
McHugh, P. R., 92, 108
McNally, R. J., 29, 31, 35, 92, 93, 106, 108
McNiel, D. E., 211, 214
Meehl, P. E., 197, 199, 200, 214
Mehl, M. R., 194
Mellers, B., 183, 195
Meltzoff, J., 275, 288
Menn, L., 95, 108
Mertz, E., 92, 105
Meszaros, J., 118, 128
Metzger, L. J., 93, 108
Miceli, G., 95, 108
Miley, A. D., 210, 215
Milgram, S., 241, 248
Miller, 292
Miller, D. T., 169, 176
Miller, G., 190
Miller, G. A.
Miller, G. E., 131
Miller, M., 100, 108
Mills, J., 167, 176
Milner, B., 98, 109
Milton, J., 227, 231
Mitchum, C., 95, 105
Mook, D. G., 26, 35
Moore, L. M., 6, 13
Moreland, R. L., 117, 129
Morewedge, 189
Morrison, 188
Moseley, D., 13
Moskowitz, G. B., 258, 269
Mulkay, 144, 159
Murdock, B. B., Jr., 149, 158
Murray, C., 81, 89
Musen, G., 99, 109
Mussweiler, T., 5, 13
Myung, I. J., 146, 153, 158, 159
Nathan, P. E., 206, 208, 214
Navarro, D. J., 153, 159
Neale, 199
Nelson, 188
Neuberg, S. L., 123, 128
Newcombe, N. S., 186, 195
Newell, A., 146, 153, 159
Newton, E., 122, 129
Nezworski, M. T., 204, 205, 215
Nickell, J., 233, 247
Nieto, A. M., 13
Nigram, M., 179, 195
Nisbett, R. E., 10, 13, 119, 125, 128, 129
Noelle-Neumann, E., 62, 65, 73
Novotny, C. M., 208, 209, 215
Ofshe, R., 93, 108
Olivers, 188
Ollendick, T., 206, 213
Olson, 258
Oltmanns, T. F., 196, 199, 294
O’Seaghdha, P. G., 96, 97, 106
Oyserman, D., 69, 71, 73
Palmer, J., 227, 230
Park, B., 114, 130
Pashler, H., 152, 159
Paul, R. W., 6, 13
Pavkov, T. W., 210, 214
Pearson, H., 190
Pelham, B. W., 168, 176
Pendergrast, M., 260, 269
Pennebaker, J. W., 194
Pepper, S. C., 70, 73
Perrotto, R. S., 92, 108
Peruche, B. M., 180, 195
Petty, R. E., 123, 129, 246, 247
Piaget, J., 22, 35, 289, 296
Piattelli-Palmarini, M., 256, 269
Pierce, B. H., 92, 93, 109
Pike, R., 149, 158
Pitman, R. K., 29, 31, 35, 93, 108
Pitt, M. A., 146, 153, 158, 159
Plant, E. A., 180, 195
Plous, S., 256, 269
Poeppel, D., 101, 108
Polonsky, S., 92, 107
Popper, K. R., 46, 53, 143, 149, 159
Potter, M. C., 186, 194
Poulton, E. C., 41, 53
Pradere, D., 31, 36
Pratkanis, A. R., 232, 233, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 245, 246, 248, 249
Prentice, D. A., 169, 176, 212, 215
Presmanes, A. G., 32, 35
Presser, S., 62, 73
Price, C., 101, 107, 108
Price, G. R., 219, 231
Priester, J. R., 124, 127
Pronin, E., 114, 129
Quant, M., 225, 231
Quinn, J. M., 246, 250
Racliff, R., 153, 159
Radford, B., 267, 269
Radin, D. I., 226, 227, 228, 231
Raftery, A. E., 153, 158
Randi, J., 232, 233, 249
Rapp, B., 96, 100, 108
Rasinski, K., 61, 72, 74
Ratcliff, G., 6, 13
Ratcliff, R., 149, 159
Rayner, R., 232, 249
Reder, L. M., 146, 158
Regan, D. T., 125, 127
Reis, H. T., 179, 194
Rescorla, R. A., 150, 159
Rice, W. E., 236, 245, 249
Riggio, H. R., 3, 13
Rindskopf, D., 48, 53
Rips, L. J., 61, 72, 74
Risen, J., 110, 189, 291, 292
Rissanen, J., 153, 159
Roberts, S., 152, 159
Robertson, C. L., 32, 35
Robins, R. W., 179, 189, 195
Robinson, D. S.
Robinson, K. J., 30, 35, 93, 108
Robinson, R. J., 258, 269
Roediger, H. L., 15, 16, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 131, 142, 292
Roediger, H. L., III., 93, 108
Roelofs, A., 96, 97, 108
Roese, 258
Romani, C., 100, 108
Romania, J. R., 96, 107
Ross, L., 113, 114, 119, 122, 127, 128, 129, 130, 245, 248, 258, 269
Ross, M., 69, 73
Rotton, J., 258, 269
Rowe, P. M., 39, 53
Rubin, D. B., 41, 53
Rubinstein, M. F., 9, 13
Rucker, D. D., 242, 249
Sackett, D. L., 46, 53
Saffran, E. M., 95, 96, 106, 107, 108
Sagan, C., 233, 249
Sagarin, B. J., 236, 245, 249
Saiz, C., 13
Salovey, P., 210, 212, 215
Sargant, W., 91, 108
Savitsky, K., 121, 128
Schacter, D. L., 29, 31, 35, 36, 93, 106
Schaffner, P. E., 119, 129
Schaller, M., 125, 129
Schechter, E. I., 225, 231
Schechter, S., 61, 73
Scheflin, A. W., 92, 105
Schein, E. H., 235, 249
Schellenberg, 188
Scheuring, B., 62, 70, 73
Schmader, 188
Schneider, D. J., 251, 259, 270
Schober, M. F., 63, 66, 72
Schooler, J. W., 186, 195
Schooler, L. J., 156, 157
Schuman, H., 55, 62, 73
Schwartz, M. F., 95, 96, 106, 107, 108
Schwarz, 289, 291, 292
Schwarz, G., 153, 159
Schwarz, N., 54, 55, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74
Scoville, W. B., 98, 109
Searleman, 99
Sedgwick, 201
Segal, J., 234, 249, 259
Seligman, M. E. P., 208, 215
Serna, S. B., 236, 245, 249
Shadel, D., 232, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 246, 249
Shadish, W. R., 44, 53, 133, 142, 290, 291, 292
Shallice, T., 96, 100, 101, 102, 109
Sharper, L., 210, 215
Sheinberg, D. L., 179, 195
Shelton, J. R., 99, 100, 108
Sherman, S. J., 112, 129
Shermer, M., 256, 266, 270
Shiffrin, R. M., 149, 158, 159
Simon, R. J., 210, 215
Singer, M. A., 180, 195
Singer, M. T., 233, 237, 249
Sirken, M., 61, 73
Skitka, L., 126, 130
Skov, R. B., 112, 129
Slater, E., 91, 108
Sloman, S. A., 123, 129
Slovic, P., 118, 129
Sluzenski, J., 186, 195
Smith, A. D., 31, 32, 33, 35
Smith, L. B., 186, 195
Smith, M., 180, 195
Smith, S. M., 92, 93, 106, 109
Smith, T. W., 65, 73
Sniderman, P. M., 55, 73
Snyder, M., 112, 129
Soal, S. G., 220, 231
Son, L. K., 11, 13
Spanos, N. P., 235, 249
Spears, R., 125, 128
Spellman, B. A., 177, 294
Spiegel, D., 92, 93, 106
Spiker, V. A., 6, 13
Squire, L. R., 99, 106, 109
Stack, L. C., 210, 215
Stanley, J. C., 44, 52, 91, 106, 133, 142
Stanovich, K. E., 123, 124, 130, 257, 264
Steeh, C., 57, 73
Stein, 91
Stephens, D. L., 96, 107
Sternberg, R. J., 7, 13, 14, 76, 77, 81, 86, 89, 161, 174, 176, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 296
Stiller, P. R., 210, 215
Stokes, D. E., 155, 159
Stone, J., 168, 176
Stone, M., 153, 159
Storm, L., 227, 231
Strack, F., 62, 64, 66, 73
Strube, G., 68, 74
Stuart, S. P., 206, 208, 214
Sudman, S., 55, 61, 63, 65, 67, 71, 72, 74
Sutton, R. G.
Swann, W. B., 112, 129
Tajfel, H., 169, 176, 239, 249
Tanur, J., 61, 73
Taylor, S., 92, 109
Tehan, 149
Tetlock, P. E., 55, 73, 126, 129, 130
Thagard, P., 173, 176
Thaler, R. H., 123, 130
Thapar, A., 31, 36
Theeuwes, 188
Thistlethwaite, D., 245, 249
Thompson-Brenner, H., 208, 209, 215
Thomson, M. S., 114, 130
Thornberry, O. T., 57, 74
Tibbetts, S., 6, 13
Tonry, M., 267, 270
Torff, B., 7, 14
Toris, C., 246, 249
Toulmin, S. E., 161, 176
Tourangeau, R., 61, 72, 73, 74
Tracy, J. L., 179, 189, 195
Traugott, M. W., 57, 74
Trope, Y., 112, 127
Tse, P. U., 179, 195
Tulving, E., 16, 24, 36, 75
Turk, D. C., 210, 212, 215
Turkheimer, E. T., 199, 215
Turner, J. C., 239, 247
Turner, M. E., 239, 249
Tversky, A., 48, 53, 117, 119, 128, 130, 168, 176, 211, 214
Ullman, M., 99, 109
Underwood, B. J., 23, 36
Urbany, J. E., 246, 249
Uriel, Y., 239, 249
Utts, J., 226, 228, 231
Vaid, J., 101, 109
Vallone, R., 114, 130
Van Boven, L., 5, 13
van Grunsven, M., 95, 107
Varvoglis, M. P., 225, 231
Verfaellie, M., 31, 36
Victor, J. S., 261, 270
Visser, P. S., 55, 74
Vogel, 188
Vos Savant, M., 111, 130
Vu, H., 100, 108
Wagenmakers, E. J., 153, 159
Wakefield, 198, 200
Wang, T. H., 241, 250
Wänke, M., 64, 73
Wansink, B., 63, 71, 72
Ward, A., 114, 129, 258, 269
Watkins, M. J., 148, 159
Watson, J. M., 23, 35
Watters, E., 93, 108
Weilbaker, D. C., 246, 249
Weisberg, H. F., 60, 74
Weschler, D., 102, 109
West, R. F., 123, 124, 130
Westen, D., 208, 209, 215
Wetherell, M., 239, 247
Wetzel, F., 95, 108
Whitehead, K., 180, 195
Whitley, B. E., 133, 142
Widiger, T. A., 202, 211, 213
Wierzbicki, M.
Wilkinson, L., 146, 159
Williams, T. L., 92, 93, 109
Willson, J., 13
Wilson, 189
Winslow, M. P., 168, 176
Wiseman, R., 227, 231
Wittenbrink, B., 259, 270
Wood, 205
Wood, S. W., 236, 245, 249
Wood, W., 246, 250
Woodman, 188
Woods, D. R., 9, 14
Woods, J. M., 204, 205, 215
Wright, L., 233, 250
Wright, P., 243–245, 248
Wyer, R. S., 66, 72
Yaffee, L. S., 99, 100, 108
Yerys, B. E., 29, 34
Yoshida, H., 186, 195
Zajonc, R. B., 124, 130
Zanna, Mark P., 160, 172, 174, 176, 258, 293, 294
Zellman, G. L.
Zhang, S., 153, 159
Zimmerman, M., 204, 215
Zurif, E., 95, 106
Zusne, L., 255, 262, 263, 264, 270
AARP fraud victim study, 235
abnormal behavior, 201
abnormal neurological performance, 103
abstracting, informative, 191
abstracts
as advertisement for articles, 184
examples of good, 191
samples of, 186–187
ways of starting, 186–188
writing of, 184–186, 188
academic domains, 9
academic psychology, 184
academic surveys, 57
accountability, 126
accuracy, 61, 210–212, 274
adaptive skills, 293
adjustment heuristic, 212
adversarial collaboration, 183
advertisements, 184, 193, 236
advertisers, 266–267
advertising, 266. See also marketing communications
affirming the consequent, 124
alien abductees, 29
altercasting, 238–239
alternative clinical assessments, 204
alternative conclusions, 122–123
alternative explanations
as associations, 137
causal relations and, 43
for correlation, 136
and correlational research, 140
critic preemption and, 161
critical thinking and, 46–48
of experimental data, 131
falsification and plausibility of, 47
plausibility and, 46
in results section, 171
and well-designed studies, 131
alternative hypotheses, 46, 233
alternative interpretations, 45
alternative responses, 63
alternative solutions, 272, 280
alternative theories, 217
American Psychiatric Association, 202
American Psychological Association (APA). See APA (American Psychological Association)
analysis, 5, 6
analytical thinking, 7
anchor, 4
anchoring heuristic, 212
anomalous beliefs. See also strange beliefs and behavior; weird beliefs
as false beliefs, 255
and ideology, 261
and magical thinking, 262
and replication of results, 266
and science, common sense and consensus, 268
and scientific respectability, 265
social and cultural support for, 260–261
sources and support for, 256
anonymity, 71
answers
formats as open vs closed response, 64
and research questions, 76
of respondents, 61, 63, 71
in science, 264–265
and survey questions, 62
testing assumptions of, 76
antegrade amnesia, 98–99
anxiety, 200
APA (American Psychological Association)
member familiarity with Ethics Code, 271
recommendations on hypotheses testing, 146
work-related standards enforcement, 273
APA Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct, 271, 272, 273–274, 275
in ethical decision-making, 277, 279
APA Publication Manual, 162, 184, 188
APA Standards
1.08 Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants and Respondents, as justice, 274
2.01 Standards of Competence;
reasonable efforts and, 277
training requirement, 276
3.04 Avoiding Harm;
and disclosure standards, 282
ethical dilemma example, 282
research design example, 285
3.05 Multiple Relationships, as beneficence and nonmaleficence, 273
4.01 Confidentiality, ethical dilemma example, 282
4.05 Disclosures, conflict example, 282
4.01 Maintaining Confidentiality, conflict example, 282
7.03 Accuracy in Teaching, as fidelity and responsibility, 274
8.07 Deception in Research, justification example, 285–286
8.08 a Debriefing, and deception, 286
8.08 b and c, debriefing and post-experiment harm, 286
8.10 Reporting Research Results, as integrity, 274
8.11 Plagiarism, as integrity, 274
9.02 Use of Assessments, as respect for rights and dignity, 274
10.10 Terminating Therapy, client benefit requirement example, 277
aphasics, 95–96
applied research, 5
arguments. See also fallacy(ies); informal logic; informal logical fallacy(ies)
analysis and critical thinking, 181
based on sources, 116
content and experiment meaning, 162
persuasiveness in, 161–162
self-persuasion and self-generated, 240
structure and persuasiveness, 162
arithmetic, 6, 80
articles, 87, 163. See also manuscripts; papers; reports; research reports
aspirational principles
APA Ethics Code as moral backbone of profession, 273
description, 273–274
as beneficence and nonmaleficence, 273
as fidelity and responsibility, 273–274
as integrity, 274
as justice, 274
as respect for people’s rights and dignity, 274
assessment methods
in clinical psychology, 203–204
projective methods of clinical, 204
self-report questionnaires as, 126
semi-structured interviews as, 204
structured interviews, 204
validity, 205
assessments. See also alternative clinical assessments; clinical assessments; Likert scale rating; Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI); Rorschach Inkblot Test; self-assessments
enforceable ethics standard, 274
of evidence, 197
types of alternative clinical, 204
validity of evidence in, 197
assimilation bias, 113, 114
assimilation effect, 67
associated connections, 124
association
covariance weakening of, 140
dataset overfitting and, 140
as potential alternative explanations, 137
subject cohort significance and, 138
and third-variable problem, 137
associative system, 124
assumptions
anomalous beliefs and cultural, 256
of causality and explanation, 121
of clients and randomized control studies, 209
of clinical categories, 95
and diagnostic boundaries, 209
of DSM-IV-TR, 203
of dual process model, 123
of falsification method, 47
and group averaging validity, 98
of modularity in cognitive processes, 101
of neurophysiological case study perspective, 96
by researchers about readers, 294
of stability and change estimation, 69
testing of research answer, 76
astrologers, 263
astrology
clear thinking and, 262–263
occult forces and, 264
outdated concepts in, 263
personality signatures and birth time, 263
predictions of, 263–264
recipes for testing in, 263–264
and science, 262–265, 266
attitudes, 245
attrition, 45
audience, 163, 192
auditory survey formats, 68
Aum Supreme Truth, 232
authority altercasting, 238
autobiographical knowledge, 69
autoganzfeld experiments, 225–226
evidence for psi, 226
and ganzfeld database, 225
sensory leakage flaws, 226
availability fallacy, 117–118
availability heuristic, 117, 292
definition, 211
fallacy and probability assessment, 117–118
logical errors and, 118
overestimation and, 118
System 1 fallacies, 124
average effect size, 225–226, 227, 228
averages, 77–78. See also central tendency; mean; median; regression to mean
awareness states, 24
background information, 2
Bacon, Francis, 16
bandwagon fallacy, 116
basic beliefs, 260
Bateman, F., 220
behavior(s), 131
bench-marking of, 69
causal laws and description of, 143
and commitment to course of action, 241
and culture, 200
as embedded memory, 69
emotions turning beliefs into, 255
frequency scales and, 69–70
and hypothetical constructs, 200
knowledge-like representation of frequent, 68
memory and estimation in questions on, 68–71
postdiction and predictive explanation, 150
report candor and accuracy, 61
and self-reports, 54
and survey response, 71
behavior patterns, 201
behavior prediction, 211
behavioral disorders, 200
behavioral measures, 168
behavioral questions, 63
frequency scales and, 69–70
memory and estimation in, 68–71
reconstruction of past and, 69
response editing, 71
behavioral reports, 71
belief(s)
as bets, 268–269
consistent with scientific knowledge, 262
as criteria for evaluating truth, 261
and culturally ordained, 259
and culture, 259–261
deduction from other beliefs, 254
definition, 252
due to desire, 254
with emotional charge, 255
as figments of imagination, 254
and ideological factors, 261
importance of accurate, 269
interpretation of opposing prior, 113
memory and information consistency with, 258
mind as machine for forming, 251
of patients in treatment programs, 207
psychological and logical status of, 252–253
public policies and false, 267
and reality, 251
satisfaction and rationality of, 267
social identity and role of, 239
as sometimes false, 255–267
standard tests of, 268
stereotypes and, 259
System 2 and errors in, 125
validation, 253–255
belief machine, 251–269
and anomalous beliefs, 261
experience interpretation, 258
as hating randomness, 257
and ideology, 261
inconsistency with scientific knowledge, 262
lacking accuracy routine, 256
mental tranquility and consistency, 258
and motivated beliefs, 254
social and cultural support, 260
and truth, 268
belief perseverance, 114
belief systems, 254, 259
bench-marking, 69
beneficence and nonmaleficence aspirational principle, 273, 282
best research, 155
best theory, 155
bets and believing, 268–269
between-subject manipulation, 132–134
between-subjects design, 18–21, 34
condition influence and, 21
definition, 18
as matched groups design, 19
random assignment in, 18
between-subjects groups, 135
between-subjects manipulation, 131
between-subjects studies, 134
biases, 114. See also assimilation bias; cognitive biases; confirmation bias; experimenter bias; gender bias; hindsight bias, 47
affecting clinician judgments, 210–211
behavior reports and systematic, 71
and clinical judgment accuracy, 210
confound statistical adjustment and, 140
representativeness heuristic and, 211
in talks, 193
birth time and astrology, 263
blame and projection effectiveness, 242
Blay-Muezah, Ackah, 232
blocked presentation, 31
bottling of experience, 166–169
boundary assumptions, 209
boundary conditions, 27, 29
brain, 266–267. See also cortical tissue; neural network regions
activity and subtractive logic, 101
injury reallocation of cortical tissue, 103
patient performance and normal functions of, 103
brain damage
cognitive function impairment and, 101
cognitive processes research and, 93
group study and, 94, 96
neuropsychological subtractivity assumption and, 96
patient grouping strategy, 97
brain-damaged individuals, 98, 100
brainwashing, 235
breadth, 144, 153
Broca’s aphasics, 94, 95–96
Brothers and Sisters of the Red Death, 232
caffeine, 132–133, 134–135, 136
Campbell, D. T., 44–46
card-guessing experiments, 218
Cartesian view, 295
case conferences, 197
case histories, 211
case reports, 91–93
case study(ies), 76, 90–105. See also clinical case studies; neurological case studies; neurophysiological case studies; neuropsychological case studies; single-case study approach
brain damage insights and, 96
of Broca’s aphasics, 95
and clinician effectiveness, 206
cognitive theory development and, 98
deficit conclusions and, 104
generalizing from, 291
methodological and strategy issues in, 101
neuropsychological cognitive inferences, 100
neuropsychological theory and parametric testing, 100
as performance test, 91
and privileged explanations, 257
short term memory and language deficits and, 99–100
syndrome classification and, 98
theory-driven experiments and, 99
case-study action researchers, 294
case study approach, 102
in clinical psychology, 93
in neuropsychology, 93
subject selection and syndrome representation, 98
vs group study approach, 96
categorical classification systems, diagnostic, 203
category fallacies and heuristic, 117, 118
causal analysis and diagnosis, 201
causal explanations, 136, 290–291
causal inference
Campbell’s threat to valid, 44–46
and cross-sectional time-series conclusions, 55
difficulty in claiming, 291
group difference identification as treat to, 44–46
and implausible-seeming alternatives, 46
inus conditions in, 290
limited from survey data, 60
as magical thinking, 121
in quasi-experimentation, 37
and randomized control trials, 207
representative sample random condition assignment and, 60
causal relationships, 38, 40, 43–46
claims clarity and falsification, 47
as contextually dependent, 40
counterfactual models of effects and, 40
in cross-sectional studies and longitudinal designs, 136
definition, 38–39
statistical correlation and, 43
causal studies, 47
causal theory, 47
causality, 121
assessment and panel surveys, 55
correlation and direction of, 136
correlation and fallacies of, 120–121
and generalization goals, 26
representativeness heuristic and, 118
causation, 80–82
and correlation, 290
in correlational studies and, 136–142
magical thinking and, 121
in quasi-experiments, 37
cause(s), 39–40
as constellation of conditions, 39
definition, 38
experimental discovery of effects of, 37
as inus conditions, 40
manipulability and experimental, 40
manipulation in quasi-experiments, 40, 43
manipulation of assumed, 37
of observed effects and study design, 135
parsimony and, 151
ceiling effect, 83
central tendency, 77
certainty, 135
chance
ESP and, 229
parapsychological claims and, 218, 229
randomness and self-correction in, 119
Soal’s parapsychology experiments and, 220
change underreporting, 69
chaos effect, 151
characteristics, 93, 135, 138–140
cheating, 220–221
childhood sexual abuse (CSA), 92–93
children, 251
circularity, 148
claims, 177–194. See also findings; parapsychological claims
in abstract, 186–188
in advertising, 266
of anomalous beliefs and scientific respectability, 265
cautiousness in, 178
challenging conventional wisdom, 2
critical thinking about own, 2–3
criticism during writing, 192–194
developing and assessing your, 178–184
in discussion section, 191–192
evaluating parapsychological, 216–230
fact checking of others, 183
of finding importance, 2–3
inclusion in abstracts, 185
inclusion in titles, 188–189
of innovation, 2
in introduction section, 189–191
making research-based, 177
in manuscripts, 184–192
of novelty and innovation, 2
in results section, 191
right size of, 182–184
in talks, 192
types of, 178–180
clear thinking on science vs astrology, 262–263
clients. See also patients
clinical decisions and, 196
problems and therapeutic procedures, 201
protection of suicidal, 275–277
randomized control study assumptions and, 209
termination and referral, 277
trust of psychologists, 271
clinical assessments, 203–204. See also alternative clinical assessments
clinical case reports
memory research directions, 92
as observational, 91
and recovered memories, 91
vs neuropsychological case study, 91
clinical case studies, 91
clinical categories and classification, 94, 95
clinical experience vs research, 206
clinical inference, 196–213
as decisions by health professionals, 196
as judgments of clinical psychologists, 212
mental disorders and, 197–201
clinical judgment, 210
accuracy, 210–212
and anchoring and adjustment heuristic, 212
availability heuristic and, 212
biases and heuristics interference with, 210
and cognitive heuristics, 211–212
clinical methodology and recovered memories, 92
clinical practice, 196, 210
and experimental evaluation of treatments, 208
and heuristics, 212
Rorschach indices and diagnoses in, 205
clinical psychologists, 201, 212
biases and cognitive heuristics, 213
dependence on observations and descriptions, 199
suicidal client protection, 275–277
clinical psychology, 197
assessment methods, 203–204
case report approach, 91–93
case study approach use in, 93
errors of theoretical and experimental work in, 294–295
ethical decision-making on confidentiality and welfare of others, 281–284
evidence-based practice, 209–210
suicide and client protection, 275–277
clinical-therapist confidentiality ethical decision making
clinically recovered memory, 93
clinician(s), 205. See also clinical psychologists; mental health experts; therapists
and availability heuristic, 212
as case-study action researchers, 294
diagnosis bias and representativeness heuristic, 211
judgment validity and biases, 210
closed response format respondent behavior, 64
cluster sampling, 56
coercive tactics, 237
cognition, 92–93
beliefs as epitome of self-centered, 252
in confirmation bias, 113
dual process accounts of every day, 123
cognition theory
and case studies, 98, 99
parametric variation and, 100
and single-case study, 93
cognitive abilities inferences, 98
cognitive architecture, 96, 156
cognitive biases, 49, 258–259. See also confirmation bias
array of, 256
as meaning of random events, 257–258
as parochial experience, 256–257
cognitive deficits and recovered memories, 92
cognitive functions
assessment and underlying modules, 96
case study inference on normal, 98
group vs case study approach in comparing models of, 96
neural network regions and mental processes, 101
of neurally intact individuals, 93
neuroimaging inferences, 101
cognitive heuristics. See heuristics
cognitive impairment, 96, 98, 101
cognitive neuropsychology
case study inferences about normal in, 100
data assumptions, 96
functional anatomical modularity and, 101
parametric variation use, 100
single-case study approach, 93
cognitive processes
brain damage research, 93
and dysfunction, 199
emotions as hard to divorce from, 254
modularity assumptions objections, 101
patient idiosyncratic technique and, 102
and surveys, 61–62, 71, 72
cognitive processing, 101
cognitive psychology, 5, 93, 153
cognitive research, 98
cognitive resources in manipulations, 168
cognitive skills, 6
cognitive system, 23, 96, 156
coherence, 144, 148–149
cohorts and associations, 138
colleagues, 276, 280
commitment, 241, 242. See also professional commitment
to course of action, 241
and rationalization trap, 241–242
and strange beliefs and behavior, 241
common sense, 268
communication. See also wording; writing
about complex topics as critical thinking example, 2–3
of argument to others, 181
of claims, 184–192
word use in, 3
communicative processes, 61–71, 72. See also wording; writing
comparative memory paradigm, 93
comparison groups, 82, 208
comparison of scores, 77
competence, 11, 271, 275–276
comprehension, 94
con criminals, 238–239, 241
conceptual representation, 96
conclusion section, 184
conclusions
data support for, 82
discussion section summary, 171
falsification and corroboration, 47
in formal logic, 110
and hypotheses, 171
in informal logic, 110
qualification of, 172
regression fallacy and unsubstantiated, 119
research report as presenting experimental, 161
from single instances, 120
conditions, 38, 39
confidence in theories and predictions, 150
confidence intervals, 85, 228
confidentiality, 71, 271, 282
confirmation bias, 49, 84, 125, 291–292
as cognitive bias, 113
and evidence, 112–113
as informal logical fallacy, 112–113
and parapsychology, 292
in recruiting evidence, 112–113
in researcher judgments, 48–49
confirmation for parapsychologists, 222
confounded variables, 131
confounding
in between-subjects design, 18
control and comparison group use, 82
definition, 17
practice effects in within-subjects design as, 19
subject variables and, 21
confounds, 292–293
in correlational methodology, 137
and covariance analysis, 140
covariance strategies and variables as, 141
designing studies to avoid, 131–142
elimination by design and statistical methods, 137
in experimental studies, 132–136
and good measures of plausibility, 171
in samples and cohort significant associations, 138
subject balance optimization, 140
in within-subject manipulation, 134
confusion and independent variables, 166
conjunction fallacy, 119–120
connectivity in science, 264
consciousness of personal beliefs, 252
consensus, 144, 268. See also social consensus
consistency
of belief and ideology, 261
as belief machine preference, 258
as characteristic of successful theories, 144
as criteria for theory evaluation, 148–149
of psychological theory and physical laws, 149
of theory and data, 145–146
constants and research outcome, 18
consultation with colleagues, 276, 280
Consumer Reports (magazine), 208–209
consumers, 243, 246
content, 2, 11, 162
context, 27, 40, 163
context effect, 65–66
and inference validity, 65, 72
in opinion questions, 65–68
question order and, 66–67
in survey responses, 62, 67–68
context sensitivity, 6
context specificity, 46
contextual approach, 33
contextual information, 63, 64
contextualism model of Jenkins, 28
continuum and covariance analysis, 138–140
contrast effect, 67
control conditions, 41
control groups
as approximate counterfactuals, 41
experimental studies and, 82
in quasi-experiments, 38, 42
and random assignment, 41
and treatment groups, 41
control variables, 18–19, 28, 29
definition, 17
controls
as nonrandom subjects, 42
in quasi-experiments, 42
in surveys, 60
vs patient scores in neuropsychological testing, 102
convenience samples, 57–58, 59, 60
convenience surveys, 58
conventional wisdom, 2, 186–188
convergence, 264, 293
converging associates
as illusion, 31
as research paradigm, 22, 29
robustness, 33
conversation rules, 66
correlation, 125
alternative explanations for, 136
causal relations and, 43
and causation, 80–82, 290
confidence interval and, 85
data outlier identification, 85
and fallacies of causality, 120–121
magical thinking and, 121
correlational methodology, 136, 137, 140
correlational studies
as observational, 44
psychological causation and, 136–142
psychology research as, 131
quasi-experiments as improvement over, 43
cortical tissue, 103
costs, 56, 86
costs-benefits decision making, 123
counterbalancing, 20, 135
as ruling out competing explanations, 136
counterfactual(s)
control groups as, 41
definition, 41
experiments as approximations of, 41
models of causal effects, 40
counterfactual inference
experimental design and, 41
nonrandom controls and, 44
in quasi-experiments, 42
random assignment as source for, 49
source improvement, 43
course of action, 282
in ethical decision-making, 280–281, 283–284
in rationalization traps, 241
covariance
characteristic continuum and, 138–140
research analysis of partial correlation and, 83–84
strategies and variables as confounds vs mechanisms, 141
Venn diagram representing, 139
covariance analysis, 139, 140
coverage error, 56, 57, 58
craziness theories, 234–236
crazy, 234–235
crazy belief and behavior
coercive tactics and dependency in, 237
as false beliefs, 255
and social influence, 236–237
crazy influence
evidence for theory of, 235
infection belief as making prone to, 236
infection myth for doing crazy things, 235
crazy things myths, 234–235
creationist science, 266
credibility experience vs scientific evidence, 267
criminal justice policy, 267
critical questions, 33–34, 247. See also questions
critical thinking, 1–7, 12, 111–112, 289–295
and alternative interpretations, 46
as alternative solution generation, 280
as being own devil’s advocate, 125–126
as conscious recollection, 11
and content area knowledge, 2
as data assessment, 203
definition, 6
in education and beliefs, 251
as effortful thinking, 10
in ethics, 272
and experimental method, 16
as generating alternative solutions, 272
as goal-directed, 6
reasoning and mental processes in, 6
researcher fallibility and, 48
as self-directed, 6
and Spinozan view, 295
taxonomy, 7
two-part model of, 5
critical thinking instruction, 7–10
assumptions of, 9
inclusion of learning and memory processes, 11
outcomes from, 10
pedagogically requirements, 10
critical thinking lessons
on analysis of score meaning, 77
on answering research questions, 76
on appropriate research methods, 76–80
on confidence intervals, 85
on critiquing research written analysis, 84
on ethical standards, 87–88
on experimental study comparison and control group analysis, 82
on means and information on variability, 77–78
on outlier identification, 84–85
on parametric statistics and normal distribution, 78
on partial correlation variance analogues and covariance, 83–84
on post-study review of research frame, 86–87
on research analysis, 77–88
on research analysis for ceiling and floor effects, 83
on research analysis on correlation and causation, 80–82
on research design, 75–77
on research story presentation, 87
on scale properties of data, 80
on statistical analysis planning, 84
on statistical test significance and effect strength, 79
on test power calculations, 79
on type 1 and type 2 error costs, 86
on value of research questions, 75–76
critical thinking skills, 12, 236, 287
as basic competency, 2
taxonomy of, 6, 8–9
as transferable, 4, 10
cross-section sampling, 58
cross-sectional studies
causal ambiguity in, 136
design characteristics, 55
cubic functions, 152
cults, 232, 240
culture
of academic psychology, 184
and mental disorders, 200–201
as more or less right, 259
as standing for something, 260
culture and beliefs
assumptions and anomalous, 256
factors in, 259–261
ideological support, 256
indoctrination and silly, 260
as intellectual options, 260
validation, 252, 253–254
data
alternative explanations of, 131
approximation and formal models, 146
causal theories and, 47
claims and flaws in, 183
claims for, 294
consistency and theory, 145–146
description in results section, 169, 170
as descriptive, 171
ethical standards on faked, 88
and faulty research, 222
generalization, 152
in hypotheses confirmation, 46
inconsistency and existing theory, 217
lacking for psychological theories, 293
meaningfulness of self-reported, 54
and mind as belief machine, 251
not research claim, 2
null hypothesis significance testing of theories, 145–146
outlier identification, 85
over-inference from, 120
and parapsychological claims, 228
presentation and persuasiveness, 169
in research analysis, 80
statistical procedure bias and, 140
from surveys, 60
testing and meta-analyses by parapsychologists, 228
and theory descriptive adequacy, 145, 147
theory differences and, 154
validity assessment methods, 203–205
data collection
cluster sampling and cost of, 56
sophistication in Soal’s parapsychology, 220
stratified analysis of, 138
surveys as systemic sample and, 54
time scale and, 152
data fit
with mathematical functions, 152
model differences and equality of, 154
and simplicity in model choices, 153
and theory range, 151
data sources in theorizing, 145, 147
datasets, 79, 151, 227
overfitting of models and, 140
death penalty, 113
debriefing, 286–287
deception, 285–286, 287
decision(s), 6. see also clinical judgment; ethical decision-making; judgment(s)
about clients, 196
as clinical inference, 196
of clinical psychologists, 196
diagnosis as clinical, 201
as higher order cognitive skill, 6
decision-making. See also ethical decision-making
as executive function, 11
of groups and fallacy of composition, 117
sample-cost fallacy and, 123
decline effect, 229
Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm. See DRM paradigm
deliberate planning instruction, 9
demand characteristics, 133
denial and rationalization trap, 242
dependency, 237, 239
dependent variables, 17, 131, 139, 168, 188
depression, 30
depressive disorder scores, 205
descriptive adequacy, 144, 145–147
and parsimony, 151, 153
design. See also experiment design; research design; survey design
as between-subjects and within-subjects research, 18–21
ceiling and floor effect in, 83
confound influence elimination by, 137
correlational, 136
elements of survey, 54–61
in method section, 165
reasonable confounds ruled out in, 133
strategy for determining, 166
of studies as correlational, 81
of studies for avoiding confounds, 131–142
desires, 237, 254. See also wishes and beliefs
deterministic conditions, 40
diagnoses, 201–202, 205
and categorical classification system overlaps, 203
as clinical decision, 201
and clinician biases, 210
as disorder recognition and identification, 201
guidelines for mental disorders, 202
in psychopathology and causal analysis, 201
and representativeness heuristic, 205
Rorschach indices inaccurate, 205
of sexual addition, 198
theory predictions and, 150
as type of clinical inference, 196
validity, 202–203
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR). See DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual)
diagnostic boundary assumptions, 209
diagnostic categorical classification systems, 203
diagnostic category clinical meaning, 201–203
diagnostic conclusions and interpretation, 211
diagnostic decisions information, 203–204
diagnostic labels, 201, 294
diagnostic manuals, 198, 202
diagnostic systems evaluation, 203
dice throwing trials, 218
difference(s), 274
confidence interval and, 85
identification in treatment groups and
in individual working memory capacity and group membership, 93
differential carryover effect, 20
dignity and respect aspirational principle, 274
direct replication, 27
discipline-based instruction, 9
disclosure standards, 282
discreteness parameters, 100
discussion section, 184
goals, 171–173
writing of, 191–192
disease mechanisms, 199
disorders
definition as value judgment, 201
in official classification system, 198
as socially-disvalued dysfunction, 200
dissociation, 100
dissonance thoughts, 242
distribution, 78, 138–140
doing and social influence, 232–247
double-blind approach, 133
Doyle, Arthur Conan, 232
Drake clubs, 239
Drake fortune claims, 232
DRM false memory, 23, 29, 31
DRM paradigm, 22, 26, 29, 33
drug research, 39
DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ), 202
criteria interpretation and heuristic, 211
definition of female orgasmic disorder, 200
personality disorder classification, 202–203
system validity, 202
dual process models, 123
dysfunction, 199, 200
ecological validity, 167, 168
education, 251, 255. See also schools and successful intelligence
effect(s). See also assimilation effect; average effect size; ceiling effect; chaos effect; context effect; contrast effect; decline effect; differential carryover effect; experimental effects; experimenter effect; floor effect; Hawthorne effect; observed effects; practice effect; primacy effect; question order effect; recency effect; simple effects test; third person effect
analysis of, 40–43
in astrology, 263
counterfactual knowledge and, 41
definition, 39
experimental discovery of causal, 37
as experimental manipulations, 40
generalization across materials and methods, 31
strength and statistical tests significance, 79
effect size, 79, 230
in parapsychology, 230
for psi as declining to zero, 230
effectiveness
and clinician approach and case studies, 206
of influence attempts and altercasting social roles, 238
vs efficacy evaluations of treatment, 208–209
effectiveness studies, 208–209
efficacy studies
distinct from effectiveness studies, 208–209
as randomized control studies, 208
and treatment effectiveness evidence, 209
vs effectiveness evaluations of treatment, 208–209
effortful thinking, 10
emotions, 246, 254–255
empirical tests, 149, 252
encoding in word recall test, 33
encoding of false memory, 32
enforceable standards
APA Ethics Code as governing work-related behavior, 273
example of beneficence and nonmaleficence, 273
example of fidelity and responsibility, 274
example of justice, 274
example of respect for rights and dignity, 274
and laws on psychologist work-related activity, 273
environment, 156, 292
environmental contingencies, 156
environmental statistics, 156
erroneous beliefs, 267
error. See also coverage error; fallacy(ies); informal logical fallacy(ies); logical error; margins of error; sampling error; total error; type 1 errors; type 2 errors
and clinical, experimental, and theoretical work, 294–295
parametric variation and prediction of, 100
in surveys, 58–59
ESP (extrasensory perception), 264–265
definition, 216
experimental evidence for, 216
experimental results and claims, 219
guesses as below chance, 229
estimation
behavioral frequency and, 70
as critical thinking example, 3–5
in questions on behavior, 68–71
strategies and research instruments, 69
survey assumptions and retrospective, 69
ethical decision-making, 272, 287
alternative solutions evaluation as step in, 280
course of action in, 280–281, 286–287
dangerous clinical context example, 281–284
example of initial steps in, 282–283, 284–286
goodness of fit model, 278
plan modification step in, 281
planning ability step in, 279
professional commitment and, 278–279
requirement fact gathering step in, 279
research design and patient treatment example, 284–287
solution and evaluation commitment requirement, 272
stakeholder perspective, 275–276, 279–280
steps, 277–281
ethical dilemmas
APA Ethics Code guidance in, 275
avoidance, 275
avoidance and APA Ethics Code use, 279
as conflicts of moral principles, 275
and critical thinking, 287
of harm to others and confidentiality, 282–284
as making decisions in areas of shades of gray, 272
in psychology, 272
of research deception and debriefing, 287
stakeholder views and decision-making in, 280
of suicidal patent protection, 275–277
suicide and client protection, 275–277
ethical planning ability, 279
ethical plans, 281
ethical practice, 287
ethical principles, 278. See also aspirational principles; moral principles; virtue
ethical questions, 279. See also ethical dilemmas
ethical realities and belief ideologies, 261
ethical standards, 87–88
ethics
experimental manipulations and correlational studies, 136
in psychology and critical thinking, 271
therapy termination requirement, 277
and thinking style flexibility, 272
evaluation
of autoganzfeld experiments, 225–226
of course of action effectiveness, 281
efficacy vs effectiveness studies of treatment, 208
of own research, 181
procedures for parapsychological claims, 218
of propositions and belief, 125
of self as most difficult, 290
of surveys, 54–72
events, 119, 257–258. See also paranormal events
everyday cognition, 123
everyday experience, 253
evidence, 160, 197
assimilation bias and ambiguous, 113–114
belief ideology and judgment of, 261
on Broca’s aphasics subtypes, 95
confirmation bias and, 112–113
consistency and naïve realism, 258
correlational, 81
for demonstration of treatment effectiveness, 209
for diagnostic systems, 203–204
on ESP and psychokinesis, 216
fallacies of interpretation and search for, 112–115
filtering of disconfirming, 114
for hypotheses people want to believe, 125
in informal logic, 111
naïve realism and, 114–115
non-sequitur fallacy and, 115
for parapsychological claims, 218, 221, 228
and parapsychology, 217
for psi, 226, 227
from single-case studies in cognitive theory, 93
on treatment effectiveness, 209
validity assessment, 197
evidence-based practice, 209–210
evolution, 156
evolutionary history, 156
executive function, 11
existence, 120, 200
expectations, 207, 235
experience(s), 253, 256, 258–259
anomalous beliefs and individual, 256
and belief machine, 259
bottling, 166–169
clinical psychologist dependence on descriptions of, 199
as dependent on culture, 200
filtering and beliefs, 258
independent variable manipulation and, 168
and perceived realities, 251
scenario use and, 168
as source of beliefs, 256–257
experiment(s), 15, 60, 167
alternative explanations and, 131
as approximations of counterfactuals, 41
argument content and meaningfulness of, 162
artfully designed and tightly controlled, 175
assumed cause manipulation in, 37
benefits and limitations, 25
as bottling of experience, 166–169
as capturing process of interest, 168
causal effects discovery and, 37
conclusion presentation, 161
conducting persuasive, 160–167, 175
as confounded, 17
in context of control variables, 27
and convenience samples, 60
correlational studies and, 136
critical questions on, 33–34
as effects manipulation, 40
and falsification of models, 149
garnering attention, 160
general principles distinguishing, 161
guidelines for compelling, 160–174
idea behind, 17
inclusion of representative surveys, 60
interest factor as subject variables, 21
internal validity of, 26
note worthiness, 160
outcome measure types, 30
in parapsychology, 220, 221
power and within-subjects design, 21
as procedural distillation, 166–167
as public effort, 266
results replication, 27
and selling of ideas, 293
tetrahedral contextual model of, 28
tetrahedral model of memory, 28
experiment design
as between-subjects and as within-subjects, 18–21
causal inferences and controlled, 290
central tasks in, 41
confounding and, 132
as experimental research question, 34
as factorial design, 166
for internal and ecological validity, 169
mathematical model formulations and, 154
phenomena complexity and simplicity of, 166
as preferred approach, 131
selection, 20
strategy for determining, 166
theoretical predications and, 146
variable operationalization, 134
experimental approach, 131
experimental causes, 40
experimental conditions
generalization and research findings, 181
as manipulable events, 40
use of different sets of, 18
within-subjects experimental design and, 19
experimental controls, 133, 175, 218
experimental effects, 40, 167
experimental factors, 256–259
experimental method, 16
application to human mind, 15
critical features of, 22
exposition of, 16
research status hierarchy, 76
experimental psychology, 15
experimental research
artificiality of, 26
certainty and, 136
confounding and rationale for, 17
convenience surveys and, 58
evaluation of, 15–34
sample of, 22–25
tight factors control in, 133
ways to guarantee generalizability of, 27
experimental results, 25–27
experimental setting, 32–33, 208
experimental studies
between-subject manipulation example, 132–134
confounds in, 132–136
control and comparison group use in, 82
psychology research as, 131
experimental surveys, 55
experimental tests, 16
experimentation, 160
experimenter bias, 133
experimenter effect, 230
explanation(s)
anomalous beliefs and scientific, 256
for assumed causal relations, 121
based on confounded research, 292
as characteristic of successful theories, 144
as criteria for theory evaluation, 150–151
parsimony and descriptive adequacy of, 151
of phenomenon and availability heuristic, 292
quasi-experiments and alternative, 44
as ruled out by experimental controls in parapsychological claims, 218
of science and incomplete knowledge, 265
single event and privilege, 257
of statistics in results section, 170
explanations. See also alternative explanations; causal explanations; postdictive explanations
external validity, 26, 208
extrasensory perception. See ESP (extrasensory perception)
factor analysis, 77
factorial design, 166
facts
gathering and legal requirements as ethical decision-making step, 279
as necessary to critical thinking, 2
objective documentation of, 174
teaching and belief about, 253
factual sense of beliefs, 252
fairies, 232
faith and belief validation, 252
faked data, 88
fallacy(ies). See also bandwagon fallacy; conjunction fallacy; fallacy of composition; fallacy of ignorance; fixed pie fallacy; informal logical fallacy(ies); Lake Wobegone fallacy; naturalistic fallacies; non sequitur fallacies; patchwork quilt fallacy; regression fallacy; sunk-cost fallacy; zero-sum fallacy
availability heuristic and, 117–118
of average group performance in Broca’s aphasics research, 96
avoidance of informal logical, 123
based on sources of arguments, 116
of category size in heuristic use, 117
in correlation and causality, 120–121
definition in informal logic, 111
of evidence search and interpretation, 112–115
of inference in informal logic, 115–123
inferences from samples and, 120
in informal logic, 110–127
of regression and representativeness, 119
statistical training and likelihood of committing, 125
System 2 use and avoidance of, 127
of zero-sum or fixed pie, 115
fallacy of composition, 117
fallacy of ignorance, 117, 124
fallibility, 46, 48–49
false beliefs, 255–256
false memory
definition, 22
formation and childhood sexual abuse clinical reports, 93
in laboratory vs real world settings, 30
recall and recognition patterns in, 31
research from Jenkins perspective, 33
research outcomes and material organization and independent variable manipulation, 32
research outcomes replication and instructional changes, 33
research paradigms, 22
research subjects and, 29
subject differences and outcomes, 33
false recall, 30, 32
false recognition
by alien abductees, 30
blocked presentation and, 32
encoding strategies of subjects in false memory research instructions, 32
materials organization and, 32
falsehood recognition, 245
falsifiability, 144, 149–150
falsification
as conclusion plausibility test, 47
confirmation bias and, 48–49
method assumptions and, 47
as requiring observational procedures, 47
falsification threats, 49
falsity, 117
familiar situations, 167
fear conditioning, 150
feedback, 96, 182
feedwords, 96
female orgasmic disorder, 200–201
fidelity and responsibility aspirational principle, 273–274
APA ethical principle example, 283
finding. See also claims
findings
clarification by statistics, 170
critical control variables in, 29
discovery of conditions for, 29
distinction for past research, 172
explanatory coherence of, 173
importance claims, 2–3
limitations of, 172
reconciliation of inconsistencies with past, 171
significance detail in research report method section, 165
strength and statistical controls, 171
first impressions, 212
fit. See also data fit
conjunction fallacy and, 119
with existing science, 264–265
goodness model of ethical decision-making, 278
of new ideas and knowledge, 265
representativeness heuristic and, 119
fixed pie fallacy, 115
flaws in psi experiments, 222, 224, 226
floor effect, 83
focus groups, 285, 286
forces in astrology and science, 264–265
forgetting, 93
formal logic, 110
formal models, 146, 147
formal rigor, 143, 151
fraud victim personality survey, 235
frequency, 70, 117–120
friendship altercasting, 238
future, 122, 264
ganzfeld database, 225, 226
ganzfeld psi experiments, 223–225
data base flaws and standards for, 224
meta-analysis, 227–228
gender bias, 210–211
generality, 25–27, 34
generalizability, 29–32, 293
external validity and, 26
Jenkins approach to, 27–33
of neuropsychological case study data, 100
generalization(s), 152, 291, 292
of data and cubic functions, 152
of experimental effects and causal relations, 40
in experimental setting and research, 32–33
generational transmission of psychiatric disorder study, 138–141
global matching models, 149
goals as phantoms, 237
goodness of fit ethical decision-making model, 278
graduate students, 182–184
granfalloon, 239–240
group(s)
averaging assumption, 98
cognition study by testing, 93
difference identification and causal inferences, 44–46
differences between control and treatment, 42
granfallooning, 240
initiation processes experimental example, 167
member formation as manipulation, 169
neurally intact individual identification as, 93
ruling out of confound by equation of, 133
group assignment, 94–95
group decision-making, 117
group seminars, 240
group study
approach vs case study approach in cognitive function research, 96
of Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasics, 95–96
cognitive impairment knowledge gaps and, 96
information meaningfulness and individual case studies, 98
relation to brain damage symptoms, 94
treatment efficacy demonstration and, 209
vs single cases in neuropsychology, 93–98
grouping, 95–96, 98
guesses, 220
harmful dysfunction, 198–199
harms-goods assessment, 280
Hartzell, Oscar, 232, 242–243
Hawthorne effect, 82
Head Start program
effectiveness study as quasi-experiment example, 38
evaluation critique, 48
evaluation experimental design issues, 42–43
evaluation group differences, 44–45
randomized conditions and, 49
health professionals, 196. See also clinical psychologists; clinician(s); mental health experts; psychologists; therapists
Heaven’s Gate, 232
heredity and environment, 292
heterogeneous databases, 228
heuristics, 111, 245. See also adjustment heuristic; anchoring heuristic; availability heuristic; representativeness heuristic
bandwagon fallacy in use of, 116
in clinical judgment, 210, 211–212
as conundrums in talks, 193
informal logical fallacy and, 111
in similarity computation and assessment, 118
hindsight bias, 122
history and causal inferences, 44
history of science, 264–265
holistic judgments, 124
Honorton, Charles, 223
hook
and research relevance, 164
research reports opening with, 163
suitability to audience, 163
titles as, 189
Hyman-Honorton debate, 223–225
hypnotism, 235
hypothesis(-es)
causal theories and, 47
clarity and variables in report introduction, 165
confirmation data and, 46
consistent evidence and, 112
critical thinking in experimental tests and, 16
evidence for disconfirming of, 113
as experimental research critical question, 34
filtering of disconfirming evidence for, 114
interest and non-obvious predictions, 164
introduction and past research, 160
as leading to concrete predictions and tests, 266
people want to believe, 125
plausibility as social consensus, 46
as relationship between variables, 16
story of how formulated, 174
supported in conclusions, 171
hypothesis testing, 146, 147
hypothetical constructs
anxiety as example of, 200
as explanatory device, 199
utility of, 200
validation as empirical processes, 200
ideas, 293
ideological beliefs, 256
ideological factors, 260
ideologically conditioned fears, 260
ideology, 261
ignorance fallacy, 117
implicit theory use, 69
impulse control disorders, 198
in-our-hands phenomenon, 39
incomplete knowledge, 265
incompleteness of causal explanations, 290–291
independent variable
covariance analysis of overlap with dependent variable, 139
independent variables
compelling manipulations of, 168
and confusion, 166
definition, 17
differences between people as true, 21
in false memory testing, 31
inclusion in titles, 188
manipulation and false memory outcomes, 32
manipulation in experimental research, 133
simultaneous variation and, 131
subject variables and, 21
individual differences, 274
individual experiences, 257
individuals, 98–100. See also clients; patients; people
inductive beliefs, 252
inference(s), 6
context effect and validity of, 65, 72
fallacies and samples, 120
fallacies in informal logic, 115–123
in informal logic, 111
limited from experiments, 60
and method, 293
non-sequiturs as fallacy in, 115–117
of pragmatic vs literal meaning by survey respondents, 63
on problem behavior and mental disorders, 197
from problem behaviors, 199
inference strategy, 69
inferential errors in frequency estimation, 117–120
influence
dealing with unwanted, 247
manipulation recognition by targets of, 245–246
plan for dealing with unwanted, 247
reduction of susceptibility to unwanted, 246–247
strange behavior as caused by strange, 235
on thinking with numbers, 4
vulnerability and persuasion training, 245
influence agents, 246
influence attempts, 238, 246
influence factor, 234
influence tactics
altercast as, 238–239
in inducing strange belief and behavior, 237–243
mitigation action and, 246
and self-generated persuasion, 240
for strange belief and behavior promotion, 244–245
student shopping experience recognition of, 245–246
used to manufacture strange belief and behavior, 243
informal logic
conclusion reasonableness and, 110
confusion of correlation and causality, 120–121
errors and heuristic usefulness and errors, 117
fallacies, 110–127
premises generation and evaluation, 110
informal logical fallacy(ies). See also fallacy(ies)
assimilation bias as, 113–114
avoidance of, 123
as biases in other people and blind spots, 114
confirmation bias, 112–113
and critical thinking, 111
definition, 111
and heuristics
importance of avoiding, 111
naïve realism as, 114–115
and representativeness, 118–120
scientist susceptibility to, 291–292
and System 124
System 2 use and avoidance of, 127
as tunnel vision, 121–123
information
anchor and specific, 4
available in memory, 1
consensus as
consistency and beliefs, 258
for diagnostic decisions, 203–204
exclusion as contrast effects, 67
falsification as useful source of, 150
frequency sales as comparative, 70
gathering about clients, 196
gathering techniques, 203
naïve realism and secondhand, 114
range and question order, 66
rationality and environment, 156
redundancy in survey questions, 66
use by survey respondents, 71
information processing, 295
information retrieval in judgment formation, 66
informative abstracting, 191
informed consent, 88
Ingram, Paul, 233
inherited ability, 7
initiation processes of groups, 167
instruction(s)
critical thinking improves with, 9
as encoding strategy, 33
as experiment context dimension, 28
generalization and research, 32–33
inclusion of metacognitive component, 12
instrumentation as group difference, 45–46
insufficient conditions, 39
integrity aspirational principle, 274
intelligence
and adaptive skills measurement, 293
nature vs nature, 9
thinking skills making up successful, 7
thinking tasks and traditional measures of, 7
interactivity parameters, 100
interest factors, 21
interest of research, 164
internal mechanisms, 199
internal validity, 26, 133
International Classification of Diseases (ICD), 202
interpersonal tasks, 238
interpretability, 144, 147–148
interpretations
of ambiguous evidence, 113–114
claims challenging prevailing, 2
of experience and beliefs, 258–259
fallacies of, 112–115
flaws and claims for your, 183
naïve realism and, 114–115
of research results and conclusions, 181
theoretical leanings and judgment in, 141
understand and prediction of existing theories, 180
interventions, 201
interviewing process, 61
interviews, 71
as semi-structured assessments, 204
as structured assessment methods, 204
as unstructured assessment methods, 203–204
introduction section
as argument for claim, 184
examples of claims in, 190–191
goals in research reports, 162–165
originality and hypotheses clarity demonstration, 165
writing of, 165, 189–191
intuition, 38, 150
inus conditions
and causal inferences, 290
causes as, 40
definition, 39
as in-our-hands phenomenon, 39
invalid disjunction, 116
Iraq invasion, 114
irrelevant variance, 83
issue framing, 65–66
issues, 164, 166
Jenkins, James, 27
Jenkins contextual approach, 27–33
Jenkins’ contextual approach, 33
Jenkins’ tetrahedral model of memory experiments, 28
journal editors, 183
journals of psychology, 184
judgment(s)
construction and research results, 71
constructive nature of, 61
in critical thinking, 6
formation by survey respondents, 63
as higher order skill requirement, 6
implications in study interpretation, 141
memory accessible information and, 66
mental processes in, 123
of psychologists about clients, 196
survey answering process research and, 61
of validity and truth and heuristic use attitudes, 245
junior investigators, 182–184
justice aspirational principle, 274
know judgments, 24
knowing, 93
knowledge, 2
as counterfactual, 41
hindsight bias and curse of, 122
of influence tactics and critical appraisal, 246
noncritical tests of student, 1
overestimation, 290
and personal vulnerability to influence attempts, 245
of relevant threats and quasi-experimentation plausibility, 48
as remembered judgments, 24
self perceived ability and, 11
knowledge-like representations, 68
laboratory conditions, 26, 29
Lake Wobegone fallacy, 290
language, 94, 99–100, 185–186
language comprehension, 61
Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA), 155–156
law
on conduct of responsible science, 272
in ethical decision-making, 94–95, 279
psychologists compliance with, 279
psychologists work-related activities and, 273
law of similarity, 121
learning
of critical thinking, 7–10
critical thinking instruction inclusion of, 12
experiments and theory originality, 154
psychology experiment on, 16
strategies as executive function, 11
thinking skill preferences and, 7
legal system, 271
lesions, 101, 103
life
as betting game, 268
survey on satisfaction with, 66, 67
Likert scale rating, 80
linear correlations, 85
listeners in talks, 193
literature, 171, 180
literature reviews, 162
literature searches, 182
locus of control, 235
logic. See also informal logic
arguments validity in formal, 110
in critical thinking, 6
fallacies of informal, 110–127
logical error, 118. See also fallacy(ies)
logical flaws, 149
logical justification, 252
long distance parapsychology experiments, 220–221
longitudinal designs, 137
magazine surveys, 59
magical thinking, 121, 262
maltreatment and cross-generational psychiatric disorders study, 138–141
manipulation(s), 131
of assumed causes in experiments, 37
of causes in quasi-experiments, 43
confounding of research and, 18
differences between people and experimental, 21
effectiveness of naturalistic, 168
as experimental cause factor, 40
experimental research control and, 133
as experimental research critical question, 34
experiments and effect of, 17
in false memory testing, 31
of independent variables, 168
independent variables and, 17
neurally intact individual performance and experimental, 93
outcome measures and, 30
persuasiveness and effect magnitude, 169
random assignment and check of, 135
success demonstration and checks of, 170
of variables in experiments, 60
manipulative games, 243–246
manuscripts. See also articles; papers; reports; research reports
communication of claims in, 184–192
as different from talks, 192
ruthlessly critical of own, 182
margins of error, 58
marital satisfaction, 66, 67. See also satisfaction with life
market research, 57
marketing communications, 243. See also advertising
Markwick, Betty, 220–221
massed practice, 11
matched groups design, 19
matched sets, 38
matching, 21–22, 42
materials, 18, 28, 31–32
mathematical and computational models, 143
mathematical formulations, 154
mathematical model falsification, 149
mathematics, 143–144
maturation as group difference, 44
Maurier, George du, 235
mean. See also averages; central tendency; median
critical thinking on distribution and, 78
outlier identification and, 85
representativeness heuristic and regression to, 119
scores interpretation and central tendency, 77
variability information and, 77–78
meaning
acquisition from context, 64
discussion section as interpretation of, 171
of random events as source of beliefs, 257–258
in survey question wording, 63
measurement, 43, 58
measures, 168
mechanism of action, 141
media, 197, 243
median, 78. See also averages; central tendency; mean
mediating variables, 171
memorization, 1
memory. See also DRM false memory; false memory; forgetting; recall; recovered memories; short-term memory; working memory capacity
Bacon on, 16
and caffeine intake study example, 132–133, 134–136
case reports on repressed and recovered, 92–93
in categorical context, 31
consistency and beliefs, 258
construction and research results, 71
constructive nature of, 61
critical thinking instruction inclusion of, 12
distortions in alien abductees, 29
episode reporting and, 68
and feeling of knowing, 93
information repetition by, 1
Jenkins’ tetrahedral model of experiments on, 28
judgments and, 66
memory system understanding in testing of, 31
performance and subject variables, 29
power law and evolutionary optimization of,
presentation in tests of recognition, 32
processes in laboratory vs real world settings, 30
psychology experiment on, 16
in questions on behavior, 68–71
subjects in laboratory vs real world, 29
survey answering process research and, 61
survey interviews and searches of, 69
survey respondent tasks and, 63
memory research, 30, 92
outcome measure types, 30
memory tests, 31, 147
men, 198
mental disorder(s)
and culture, 200–201
definition as harmful dysfunction, 198–199
diagnosis as clinical decision, 201
diagnosis based on characteristic symptoms, 201
as diagnostic label for problem, 201
and DSM-IV-TR system revisions, 202
as focus of psychological treatments, 201
guidelines for diagnosing, 202
objective performance evaluation and, 199
press coverage of, 197
problem behavior and, 197
problem of how defined, 198
psychopathology tests and, 199
sexual addition as example of, 198
therapeutic procedures and, 201
mental health, 208–209, 274
mental health experts, 210. See also therapists
mental health services, 201, 277
mental illness, 92–93
mental phenomena, 15
mental processes
in critical thinking, 6
dual process models of, 123
in neural network regions and cognitive functions, 101
neuroimaging activation of brain areas and, 101
as quick and effortless, 123
in System 123
mental representations, 115
mental tranquility, 258
meta-analysis
defects and ganzfeld psi experiments, 227
findings on Broca’s aphasics case studies, 95
of ganzfeld-psi experiments, 227–228
as tests of new data, 228
use of heterogeneous data bases in parapsychology, 228
volatility and ganzfeld psi experiment results, 227
weaknesses in psi claims confirmation, 227
metacognition, 6, 11, 12
metacognitive skills, 11
method section, 165, 184
methods, 76, 293
microcosm, 166–167
Mill, John Stuart, 43
Miller, Neal, 177
mind
as belief machine, 251–269
experimental method application to, 15
testing of ideas on, 16
Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI), 204, 205
minorities, 210, 259
mistakes, 11
MMPI. See Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI)
model
choices and phenomenon, 153
differences and data fit equality, 154
parsimony and empirical data fit of, 151
selection, 153
technique as providing insight into, 153
Modern Experiments in Telepathy, 219, 220
modularity, 101
modularity assumption, 96, 100
monitoring
of course of action effectiveness, 281
of emotions and social influence tactics, 246
ethical decision implementation, 286–287
of self by students as habit, 11
successful instruction in, 9
moral agents, 271
moral commitment, 271, 278
moral principles, 271, 275. See also ethical principles
moral values, 278. See also virtue
motivated beliefs, 254, 255
motives in belief validation, 254–255
multiple methods of analysis convergence, 293
naïve realism
as bias blind spot, 114
consistency and evidence evaluation, 258
as informal logical fallacy, 114–115
narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), 198, 202
narrative structure, 174
nationally representative surveys, 56, 59
natural ability, 7
natural responses, 169
natural settings, 27
naturalistic fallacies, 116
naturalistic manipulations, 168, 169
Nature ( journal), 191
negative behaviors projection tactic, 242
negative traits projection tactic, 242
neural network regions, 101
neural tissue reallocation, 103
neurally intact individuals, 93
neuroimaging, 101
neurological case studies, 102
neurological module, 101
neurophysiological case studies
approach challenges, 100–104
data and parametric testing as theory constraint, 100
perspective understanding of, 96
universal assumption on brain damage, 96
vs clinical case report, 91
neuropsychological case studies, 81, 96
neuropsychological case study approach, 93
neuropsychological testing, 101
neuroscientific research methods status, 76
non sequitur fallacies, 115
non sequiturs, 115–117
noncritical thinking, 1–2
nonintuitive predictions, 150
nonmaleficence, 273, 282
nonmanipuble events, 40
nonprobability sampling, 57, 58
nonrandom controls, 43, 44
nonredundant conditions, 39
nonresponse error, 58, 61
nonresponse in survey sampling, 57
normal
brain functions and patient performance, 103
cognitive function inferences and case studies, 98
distributions and parametric statistic, 78
null hypothesis significance, 79
null hypothesis significance testing, 145–146
numbers, 3–5
numerical survey rating scales, 64
numerical values, 64
observation(s)
causal study utility and, 47
clinical psychologist dependence on, 199
organization by theories, 143
as quasi-experiments design tool, 42
of results and laboratory conditions, 26
of science as public effort, 266
self-report enhancement, 168
observational procedures, 47
observational studies, 44
observed effects, 171
Occam’s Razor, 151–153
occult forces and science, 264
odds against chance, 220
Oman Ghana Trust, 232
open response format, 64, 70
open scientific constructs, 199
opinion(s)
bench-marking of current, 69
construction and research results, 71
of majority as valid, 116
report candor and accuracy, 61
retrieval of previously formed, 63
opinion differences, 114
opinion polls, 54, 65
opinion questions, 2, 65–68
ordinal data, 80
organization, 31, 32
originality, 144, 154
outcome, 6, 33, 196
outcome measures
as experiment context dimension, 28
false memory and, 33
generalizability of research and, 30–31
outliers, 84–85, 104
over-inference from sample size, 125
over sampling subgroups, 59
overestimation, 118
overfitting, 140
p-value magnitudes, 79
panel surveys, 55
papers, 177–194. See also articles; manuscripts; reports; research reports
paradigms
departures in parapsychological research, 218
false memory research, 22
relevance of DRM false memory, 26
research issues and laboratory, 25
verification for converging associates, 29–30
parametric statistics, 78
parametric variation, 100
paranormal events, 217
Parapsychological Association, 223
parapsychological claims
assessment of status of, 228
data deficiencies, 228
difference between Soal and Rhine, 222
disconfirming and impossibility to falsify, 229
evaluation, 217, 218, 222
evaluation lessons of Soal affair, 221–223
as highly suspect, 228
as impossible to falsify, 229
scope of, 216
of Soal, 220–221
parapsychological evidence, 220–221, 223
parapsychological experiments, 220, 224
parapsychological research, 218, 220–221
parapsychologists
flexible notion of confirmation and repeatability, 222
as turning failures into psi properties, 230
understanding of research quality, 222
use of meta-analyses, 228
use of pattern occurrence and data, 229
parapsychology
confidence intervals, 228
confirmation bias and, 292
definition, 216
as experimental science, 216
Hyman-Honorton debate, 223–225
and orthodox natural and social science, 217
psi as subject of, 217
scientific status questions, 230
and scientific world view, 217
parental histories of psychiatric disorders, 137–141
parsimony
and descriptive adequacy, 153
and successful theories, 144
and theory evaluation, 151–153, 157, 293
partial correlations, 83–84
participants, 168, 170, 171. See also individuals; respondent(s); subjects
participation in within-subjects designs, 20
past, 122
past events, 24
patchwork quilt fallacy, 229
pathogens, 46
patient performance, 103
patient referral, 277
patients. See also clients
belief system and treatment programs, 207
health professional decisions and, 196
normal and deficit effects in, 104
in randomized controlled trails, 206–207
self-report assessment accuracy, 204
strategy development in neurological case studies,
testing and categorization of, 94–95
treatment and research design ethical decision-making example, 284–287
unstructured interview and, 203
vs control scores in neuropsychological testing, 102
PCH (Publishers Clearinghouse), 233, 234, 239, 243, 247
pedagogy for critical thinking, 10–12
people. See also clients; individuals; patients
clinical psychologists treatment of, 201
independent variables as differences between, 21
infection myth of crazy influence in doing crazy things, 235
research as about, 163
who do strange things as crazy, 234
perceived realities, 251
perceived validity, 245, 253
perceptual processes and dysfunction, 199
performance
estimating one’s own, 11
memory test and hypothesis testing, 147
mental disorders and objective evaluation of, 199
neurally intact individual group membership and, 93
peripheral beliefs, 254
personal belief in research importance, 164
personal experience, 253, 267
personal interests and beliefs, 267
personal knowledge, 11
personality
astrological signatures and, 263
characteristics and prediction of fraud victimization, 235
persuasibility as influence factor, 234
predictions by astrology, 264
personality disorders, 202–203
persuasibility, 234
persuasion
consumers and marketing attempts at, 243
as structure with interesting content, 162
training and influence vulnerability, 245
and training in authority use, 236
persuasive intent, 246
persuasiveness
as arguing well, 161–162
argument structure and interest, 162
in arguments, 245
in communication, 293–294
experimental control and, 175
experimental design simplicity and, 166
of experiments as bottling of experience, 166–169
of manipulations and effect magnitude, 169
no formula for experiment, 160
psychological situation procedural distillation and, 166–173
scientific goals of, 174
statistical methods and, 170
phantom dreams, 237
phenomena. See also events; paranormal events; psychological phenomena
complexity and experimental design simplicity, 165
experiments as working model of, 166
model choices and, 153
new scientific theories and, 264
parsimony and explanation of, 151
theoretic complexity of psychological, 153
theory and finding explanation of other, 173
philosophers, 15
philosophy of science, 183–184
phonological information, 99–100
physical laws, 149
physics, 264
PK (psychokinesis), 216, 218
placebo control groups, 207, 208
plagiarism, 274
plausibility
of alternative hypotheses, 46
in causal relationship interpretation, 45
of hypotheses as social consensus, 46
judgments as fallible, 46
quasi-experimentation validity and, 48
plausibility theory, 48
population
characteristics and quota sampling, 58
in convenience surveys, 58
cross-sections and quota sampling, 58
estimation critical thinking example, 3–5
probability sampling of, 56
sample representativeness and, 120
in survey design, 56–59
values and sampling error, 58
post-experiment harm reduction, 286
postdiction, 144, 150–151
postdictive explanations, 151
power calculations, 80
power function, 152, 156
practical thinking, 7
practical vs statistical significance, 79
practice effect, 19–20
precision, 144, 147–148
prediction(s)
by astrology, 262–263
as characteristic of successful theories, 144
counter-intuitiveness and manipulation subtly, 169
as criteria for theory evaluation, 149–150
as diagnostic, 150
as enabled by theories, 143
of existing theories and your findings, 180
and experience interpretation, 259
fear conditioning over-expectation and, 150
formal models and quantitative, 147
global matching and mathematical models, 149
hypotheses and concrete, 266
levels of interaction and theoretical, 166
natural conditions and, 150
as not a goal of psychology, 151
of parametric variation, 100
of personality and future in astrology, 263–264
post-study review of research frame and, 86
research hypothesis and non-obvious, 164
theory confidence and, 150
predisposition
of beliefs to ideological judgments, 261
of beliefs to ideology, 261
prejudice and behavior interpretation, 259
premises
in formal logic, 110
generation and evaluation in informal logic, 110
information and, 115
as irrelevant to conclusion, 115
Presidential debates, 113
pretesting, 19, 62, 65, 82
Price, George, 219
primacy effect, 68
probability
assessment and availability heuristic, 117–118
causal relationships and, 40
control vs treatment group differences, 42
representativeness heuristic and, 118
probability samples
informative value vs convenience samples, 59
as survey population, 56–57
use in surveys, 61
problem behavior, 197
problem solving, 2, 6, 9
and dysfunction in mental disorders, 199
problems, 6. See also ethical dilemmas
of clients and clinical psychologists decisions, 196
of clients and therapeutic procedures, 201
as identified by diagnostic labels, 201
mental health services as beneficial for, 201
of society and scientific theories, 154–156
professional commitment, 272, 278–279
professional discretion, 282
professional ethics, 271
prognosis and clinician bias, 210
prognostic forecasting, 196
program evaluation
projection tactic, 242–243
projective methods of clinical assessment, 204
proof, 47, 125
propaganda, 245
pseudo science, 265–266, 267
psi, 216, 229, 230
claims meta-analysis weaknesses, 227
evidence and ganzfeld-psi experiments meta-analysis, 227
evidence of autoganzfeld experiments, 226
existence claims, 228
experiment written reports and research flaws, 222
as negatively defined, 229
scoring sheets decline effect, 229
psychiatric diagnoses, 202–203
psychical research, 216, 217, 218
psychics, 232
psychokinesis (PK). See PK (psychokinesis)
psychological experiment participant safety and design, 284–287
psychological features in experimental models, 167
psychological phenomena. See also events; paranormal events; phenomena
causes of, 291
complex nature and experimental design simplicity, 165
complex research designs and, 166
confounded research and explanation of, 292
and convergence of multiple methods of analysis, 293
data and formal models of, 146
informal fallacies in explaining, 292
psychological processes, 166, 241
psychological research
case study perspective on, 90–105
causal explanation and, 136
certainty and replication importance in, 135
matching of people and conditions in, 21–22
reduction of hypotheses testing, 146
subject variables in, 21
psychological tests, 205
psychological theories, 61, 147. See also theory(ies)
psychological treatments, 201, 206, 208. See also treatment
psychologists
alternative solutions generation and evaluation, 272
beneficence and nonmaleficence by, 273
and client trust, 271
clinical inferences and decisions by, 196
clinical judgments accuracy, 210–212
compliance with laws, 279
consultation with colleagues, 280
diagnostic manual use, 202
diagnostic systems and evidence evaluation, 203
ethical question awareness responsibility, 279
ethical responsibilities of, 287
information gathering techniques, 203
mental disorder diagnosis, 201
moral commitment, 271, 278
on problem behavior, 197
professional commitment in ethical decision-making step, 278–279
professional consultation and patient referral, 276
public trust in, 271
reliance on training and clinical experience, 206
research evaluation and becoming a, 181
stakeholder expectation familiarity, 280
trust of legal system in, 271
use of DSM-IV-TR guidelines, 202
as virtuous, 278
work-related activity standards enforcement, 273
psychology, 295
as based on trust, 271
claims of contribution to, 177
clinical case studies in, 91
clinical inferences in practice of, 212
critical thinking as really critical in, 289–295
data sources in, 145
efforts at unification by, 153
ethical decision making in, 287
ethics and critical thinking in, 271
experimental note worthiness and, 160
formal rigor of, 151
heredity and environment as entangled in, 292
information gathering and clinical thinking in practice of, 196
as lacking supporting data, 293
Lake Wobegone fallacy and, 290
method status hierarchy in, 76
as not special for anomalous beliefs, 256
persuasive communication in, 293–294
prediction as not a goal of, 151
professional ethics of, 271
socialization in, 289
status as science, 143
student critical thinking and, 2
susceptibility to confounds, 292–293
theory consistency and physical laws, 149
timidity of language in, 183
verbal theories and mathematical and computational models of, 143
psychology courses, 12, 251
psychology experiments, 15, 16
psychology research, 131
psychology researchers, 49
psychology students, 93
psychopathology, 199, 201
psychotherapy
approach effectiveness study example, 208
confirmation bias and, 48–49
effectiveness evaluation of different form, 206
multiple relationships enforceable ethics standard, 273
randomized conditions in validation of, 49
termination ethical requirement, 277
psychotherapy research, 207
public opinion, 65, 259
public policies, 267–268
Publishers Clearinghouse (PCH). See PCH (Publishers Clearinghouse)
push polls, 62
quantifiers in questions, 70
quasi-experimentation
causal claim falsification and, 47
critical thinking in, 49, 50
fallible psychology in, 48–49
measurement and group matching in, 43
validity and plausibility of, 48
quasi-experiments, 46–48
basic tools in, 37
causal inference in, 37
causation in, 37, 38–46
cause as manipulated condition in, 40
control of variables in, 44
counterfactual inference source creation as, 42
critical thinking roles and randomized experiments, 37
demand for critical thinking, 49
example of, 38
as improvement over correlational studies, 43
matching of control to treatment groups, 42
mistaken claims in, 40
as nonrandom assignment to conditions, 38
plausible explanation in, 46
random vs nonrandom conditions in, 42
test biases, 47
treatment vs control group differences in, 42
variables controls and, 44
question answering processes, 54
question comprehension, 63
question interpretation, 63, 64, 65
question order effect, 66–67
question shaping, 62
question wording, 65–66, 68, 289
questioning, 6
questionnaires
design and cognitive and communicative processes, 61–71
evaluation of, 54–72
product promotion intentions and, 62
question comprehension by respondents to, 63
question context, 64
respondents’ tasks, 62–63
response alternatives, 64–65
questions. See also critical questions
as context in surveys and questionnaires, 64
formats and alternative responses, 63
meaningfulness of self-reporting and, 54
pretest procedures and development of, 65
research instrument as context for, 65
responses in opinion polls, 3
surveys asking threatening, 71
quota sampling, 58
racial bias, 210, 211, 259
random assignment
in between-subjects design, 18
as condition in representative samples, 60
as counterfactual inference source, 49
as critical thinking substitute, 49
formation of control groups and, 41
group creation purpose of, 38
group equality of experimental conditions, 134
idea of, 135
manipulation checks and, 135
as ruling out competing explanations, 136
of subjects and internally-validity, 133
and treatment condition in effectiveness studies, 208
random controls, 42
random digit dialing, 56
random presentation memory tests, 32
random sampling, 56, 59
random sequence representativeness, 118–119
randomization, 56, 226
randomized controlled trails. See RCT (randomized controlled trails)
randomized experiments, 37, 49
randomness, 119, 257
rank-order, 80
rankings as ordinal data, 80
rating scales, 64–65
ratings, 80
rational thought and dysfunction, 199
rationality, 144, 156, 267
rationalization trap, 241–242
RCT (randomized controlled trails), 213
and causal inferences, 207
limitations, 207–208
and real world treatment sessions, 210
use in evaluating treatment procedures, 206–208
vs effectiveness evaluations of treatments, 208
readers
abstract and casual, 185
as caring about meaning of article, 185
conclusions and unorthodox data tests, 170
as consumers of research, 182
format of research report and, 174
making paper easy for, 190
and persuasive writing, 294
research report introduction mindfulness of, 163
researcher assumptions and, 294
use of outside, 182
real world, 29, 30, 210
reality(-ies)
and beliefs, 251
experiences and external, 256
false beliefs and accepted, 255
motivated beliefs and,
reasonable belief, 234
recall
blocked vs random presentation in tests of, 32
in false memory experiments, 31
later recognition and prior, 24
as noncritical thinking, 1
word association-recognition and false, 23–25
recall-and-count strategy, 68
recall tests, 23, 24, 31
recency effect, 68
recognition
in false memory experiments, 31
memory null hypothesis significance testing and, 145–146
Roediger and McDermott experiment results, 25
recognition tests
of activated words, 23
presentation in tests of, 32
results of, 24
word identification and recall in, 30
recollection, 11
recovered memories
in clinical case reports vs experimental research, 91
clinical methodology and, 92
lack of verifiability, 92
recruiting of evidence, 112–113
reflection, 6
regression fallacy, 119
regression to mean. See also averages; central tendency; mean
as group difference threat to causal inference, 45
randomized conditions and detection of, 49
representativeness heuristic and, 119
rehospitalization prognoses, 210
religious beliefs, 253
remember judgments, 25
remember/know procedure, 24
repeatability, 222
repetition condition, 20
replication, 27, 104, 135
and anomalous beliefs, 266
definition of conceptual, 27
definition of direct, 27
in experimental effect, 27
and faulty research, 223
and ganzfeld psi results and metadata, 227
research report method section and, 165
reports, 222. See also articles; manuscripts; papers; research reports
representative populations, 56
representative samples, 60
representative surveys, 60
representativeness
conjunction fallacy and, 119–120
evaluation of, 72
informal logical fallacies and, 118–120
low response rates and, 57
misconception and random sequences, 118–119
nonprobability sampling and negative, 57
of sequences, 118
of surveys and response rates, 57
representativeness heuristic
in making judgments, 117
and race and gender bias, 211
regression to mean and, 119
similarity computation and assessment, 118
Rescorla-Wagner model of conditioning predictions, 150
research, 155, 163
ability to critique own, 181
claims and data, 294
claims in papers and talks, 177
context and importance of, 163
deception justification example, 285–286
ethical standards, 87–88, 274
as extension of past, 172
frame post-study review, 86–87
and generalization, 293
Jenkins’s approach to generalizability of, 27–33
in natural settings and generalizability, 27
originality demonstration in report introduction, 165
presentation in talks, 193
programmatic approach to, 166
on psychological research as confounded, 292
publication status and claims of others, 183
and readers, 164, 174, 182
report introduction hook use to situate, 163
statement of value and contribution of own, 178
story presentation, 87
use of appropriate methods, 76–80
vs clinical experience, 206
research analysis, 75–88
critical thinking lessons;
on ceiling and floor effects as, 83
comparison and control groups, 82
on confidence intervals, 85
on correlation and causation in, 80–82
on distributions and parametric statistics, 78
on means and variability information, 77–78
on outlier identification, 84–85
on partial correlation variance analogues and covariance, 83–84
on post-study review, 86–87
on scale properties of data, 80
on scores and central tendency, 77
on self-critique of written, 84
on statistical test significance level and effect strength, 79
on test power calculations, 79
on type 1 and type 2 error costs, 86
research benefits and harms, 285
research claims. See claims
research design, 5, 75–88
as correlational designs, 136
group and sample size, 80
level of interaction complexity and, 166
and patient treatment ethical decision-making example, 284–287
statistical analysis planning, 84
research focus, 164
research instrument, 65, 69
research participant and design safety design ethical dilemma, 284–287
research process, 161, 174
research questions
on answering, 76
appropriate method critical thinking, 76–80
assumptions and tests, 76
socially sensitive or dangerous, 284
types of, 75
on value of, 75–76
research reports
discussion section goals and persuasiveness, 171–173
framework for arguments in, 162
goals of introduction section, 162–165
method section, 165–169
narrative structure, 174
preparing persuasive, 162
as presenting experimental conclusions, 161
results section goals and persuasiveness, 169
as telling clear story, 173–174
title, 164
research study ethical decision implementation example, 286–287
research subjects. See subjects
researchers. See also junior investigators
adversarial collaboration, 183
assumptions about readers, 294
need of clinical skill, 294
observations and causal studies, 47
reliance on personal judgment, 48
research claims and talking to knowledgeable, 182
respect and dignity aspirational principle, 274
respondent(s)
assumption of stability, 69
behavior recall and estimation by, 71
candor and accuracy, 71
change assumptions and reporting, 69
conversational role use, 66
editing of survey answers, 63
frequency scale and, 69–70
inferences of literal vs pragmatic meaning, 63
private judgment formation by, 63
question order effect and, 66
recall-and count strategy use, 68
selection, 54
survey open vs closed format and, 64
and survey question, 63, 289
tasks of, 61, 62–63
use of rating scales, 64–65
response(s)
editing, 71
effect, 62
order context effect, 67–68
question formats and alternative, 63
survey and questionnaire alternative, 64–65
response rates
academic surveys in, 57
declines in, 57
inclusion in good survey reports, 61
in market research, 57
nonprobability sampling and low, 57–58
and survey representativeness, 57
responsibility
APA ethical principle example,
aspirational ethical principle description, 273–274
for awareness of ethical questions, 279
and dependency altercast roles, 239
results section
alternative explanations in, 171
data description in, 170
to paper as argument for claim, 184
persuasiveness and goals and in research reports, 169
writing of, 191
retention and study methods, 11
retention interval, 132
retrieval of opinions, 63
retrospective reports, 69
reviewers, 183, 290
Rhine, J. B., 218, 222
Rhine paradigm, 218
Roediger-McDermott experiment, 23–25
Rorschach indices, 205
Rorschach Inkblot Test, 204, 205
Rorschach scale, 205
sample
size and unique association patterns, 140
sample(s)
and causal inferences, 291
confounds and cohort significant associations, 138
inference fallacies and, 120
representativeness and population, 120
in survey design, 56–59
sample size
research design and, 80
sampling error as nonlinear with, 59
skeptical mind set and over-inference from, 125
statistical significance interpretation, 79
sampling
population and probability, 56
population characteristics and quota, 58
quotas as nonprobability sampling, 58
sampling error
definition, 58
meaning of, 61
as nonlinear to sample size, 59
population values and
as precluded in quota sampling, 58
of surveys, 58
sampling frame, 56, 59
satisfaction with life, 237. See also marital satisfaction
saying things, 289
scale properties, 80
scales, 80
scams, 232
scenarios, 167–168
schemer schema, 243–246
schizophrenia diagnosis, 210
schools and successful intelligence, 7
science
and accepted standards for validation, 261–267
and answers, 264–265
as best guide for belief, 262
clear thinking and, 262–263
as community effort, 266
as dynamic interplay of discovery and justification, 172
ethical standards lesson, 87–88
fit with existing, 264–265
misleading presentation of, 266–267
parapsychology and orthodox natural and social, 217
recipes for testing in, 263–264
record of self correction in, 262
as requiring bold thinking, 177
state and federal regulations in, 94
as testing theories, 143
theories in hard vs soft, 143
and value of incremental contributions, 183
and weird beliefs, 268
Science ( journal), 191, 219
sciences as hard and soft, 151
scientific appraisal, 233
scientific discovery, 154
scientific enterprise, 233
scientific evidence, 217, 267
scientific interest, 172
scientific jargon, 266
scientific knowledge
beliefs consistent with, 262
model falsification as information source for, 150
and public trust of psychologists, 271
useful theories and, 143
scientific methods, 15, 271
scientific progress, 265
scientific research, 155, 294
scientific respectability, 265
scientific theories, 183, 264–265
scientific understanding, 155
scientific world view, 217
scientists
basic principles and agreement among, 263
cognitive biases of, 49
confirmation bias susceptibility of, 291–292
and informal logical fallacies, 291–292
as interested in mind, 15
score
comparison with means, 78
distribution of individual cognitive abilities and inference validity, 98
of patients and controls in neuropsychological testing, 102
validity of standardized assessment instruments, 205
secondhand information, 114
selection as group difference threat, 45
selection probability, 59
self, 237, 290
self-assessments, 69. See also Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI)
self-belief, 242
self-centered cognition, 252
self-criticism, 126
self-direction, 6
self-emotions, 237
self-esteem, 239
self-monitoring, 6
self-persuasion, 240
self-presentation, 71
self-reports
as clinical assessment method, 204
ecological validity and scales in, 168
knowledge of behavior and, 54
measures choices of, 168
questionnaires as assessment methods, 126
selling experiments and ideas, 293
semantic comprehension, 95
semi-structured interviews, 204
sensory leakage, 226
sentence comprehension, 94
sequences, 118
sexual addition
diagnosis, 198
as example of harmful dysfunction, 199
as hypothetical construct, 200
not appearing in diagnostic manual, 198
press coverage, 197
sexual harassment ethics standard, 274
shaping of complex topics, 2–3
short sequences, 118
short-term memory
case study of language deficits and, 99–100
group vs case study approach in comparing models of, 96
phonological information and, 100
significance determination, 86
significance levels, 79
silly beliefs, 260
similarity, 118
simple effects test, 170
simplicity in experimentation, 165–166
single anecdotes, 120
single-case design studies, 209
single-case study approach, 93
single cases vs group studies in neuropsychology, 93–98
single data points, 120
single event explanation privilege, 257
single experiences, 257
skeptical mindset, 125, 126
skills. See also adaptive skills; cognitive skills; critical thinking skills; therapeutic skills; thinking skills
competency recognition and metacognitive, 11
grouping of important, 7
higher order cognitive, 6
list of important generic, 6–7
teaching and transfer of, 9
skills-based approach to thinking, 7
Soal, S. G., 220–221, 222
Soal affair, 221–223
social consensus
creation by con criminals, 241
hypotheses plausibility as, 46
and promotion of strange beliefs, 241
as social influence tactic, 240–241
social factors, 259–261
social identity, 239
social influence
and altercasting of social identity, 239
in doing and believing, 232–247
experience of intense, 236
and explanation of doing of crazy things, 234
and fair and ethical forms of persuasion, 247
social influence analysis, 236–237
social influence tactics
and control of thoughts, 246
and crazy beliefs and behavior, 237
definition, 236
and granfallooning, 239–240
and monitoring emotions, 246
in projection tactics, 242–243
of rationalization trap, 241–242
as social consensus, 240–241
social influences, 243
social nature of anomalous beliefs, 260
social pressure
in altercast social role, 238
and consensus, 241
and social consensus, 241
social processes, 254
social psychology, 5, 236
social research, 54
social roles, 235, 238
social sensitivity and research, 284
social situation, 234
social status, 239
socialization, 289
socially-disvalued dysfunction, 200
societal problems and scientific theories, 154–156
society, 201, 267, 271
Society for Psychical Research, 223
solutions in ethical decision-making, 272
spaced practice, 11
speculations, 193
Spinozan view, 295
stability assumption, 69
stakeholder, 275–276, 279–280
standard deviation, 77
standardized assessment instrument scores, 205
standardized test battery use, 94
statistical analysis, 43
hypotheses testing, 146
planning of, 84
statistical artifact detection, 229
statistical connection, 121
statistical defects in ganzfeld experiment, 224
statistical methods. See also regression to mean
confound elimination by, 137
in parapsychological research, 218
as solution to data collection issues, 138
statistical procedures
for abnormal neurological performance determination, 103
bias in adjustment for confounds, 140
in parapsychology experiments, 220
sophistication in Soal’s parapsychology, 220
statistical significance
definition of, 79
outlier identification and, 85
vs practical significance interpretation l, 79
statistical techniques, 60
statistical tests, 79, 227
statistics
data presentation and inferential, 170
research story presentation and interpretation, 87
results section explanation of, 170
training and likelihood of committing fallacies, 125
stereotypes, 259
stimuli, 167, 168
story
behind research and hypothesis formulation, 174
creation of coherent, 180–181
line of reports, 172
of research and introduction, 189
of research presentation and interpretation, 87
research report as telling clear, 173–174
strange, 233
strange belief purveyors, 240
strange beliefs and behavior
as cased by strange influences, 235
craziness theories of, 234–236
culture and ideological belief support for
and escalating commitment, 241
and influence tactics, 237–243, 244–245
motivated belief and, 254
promotion by social consensus, 241
rationalization and dissonance thoughts, 242
and science, common sense and consensus, 268
strange influences, 235
strange things, 233, 234
strategies, 6, 19
strategy in neurological case studies, 102
strategy use, 102, 103
stratified analysis, 138
structured interviews, 204
students. See also graduate students; psychology students
critical thinking skills instruction and attainment by, 9
habit of self-monitoring and, 11
as more effective thinkers, 9
practice and retention by, 11
spontaneous application of critical thinking skills by, 10
study methods, 11, 16
thinking skill preferences of, 7
study(ies)
alternative explanations and well-designed, 131
answering research questions in, 76
description in research report method section, 165
design and observed effects cause conclusions, 135
design to avoid confounds, 131–142
distinguished from past research, 172
low internal validity and confounded, 133
researcher adversarial collaboration, 183
on story presentation, 87
theoretical leanings and judgment in interpretation of, 141
subgroup, 59
subject
confound balance optimization, 140
subject groups, 30, 135
subject selection, 98
subject variables, 21–22
definition, 21
in false memory testing, 31
memory research and, 29
people as assigned differences by nature, 21
subjects
associations and variables of interest in cohorts of, 138
as control variables, 18
controls and nonrandom, 42
dataset overfitting and number of, 140
as experiment context dimension, 28
of false memory research, 33
generalizability of research and, 29–30
internally-validity and random assignment of, 133
research instruction and settings for, 32
study systematic differences and, 132–133
subliminal influence, 235
subliminal messages, 235
subtractive logic, 101
subtractivity assumption, 96
successful intelligence, 7
sufficient conditions, 39
suicide and client protection ethical dilemma, 275–277
sunk-cost fallacy, 122–123
survey(s), 54–72. See also convenience surveys; opinion polls; panel surveys; representative surveys; web site surveys
cluster sampling in nationally representative, 56
definition, 54
as descriptive data, 60
error in, 58–59
pretesting of scientific, 62
purposes and information collection, 62
question cognition and context, 62
question comprehension by respondents to, 63
question context, 64
representative probability sample use, 61
representativeness and low response rates to, 57
respondents’ tasks, 62–63
statistical techniques use, 60
strengths and weakness of, 60
wording importance, 290
survey design
behavior memory and estimation in, 68–71
cognitive and communicative processes in, 61–71
context effects in opinion questions and, 65–68
elements of, 54–61
frequency scales and, 69–70
population and samples in, 56–59
questions and, 63, 64, 65–67
reconstruction of past and, 69
respondents tasks and, 62–63
response order effects, 67–68
and threatening questions, 71
types, 55
vague quantifiers and, 70
survey interview, 66, 69
survey questions, 66, 289
survey reports, 61, 72
survey research, 61
survey researchers, 57
survey response. See also answers; nonresponse error
alternatives, 64–65
editing and threatening questions, 71
nonresponse, 57
question wording and, 289
rate inclusion in reports, 61
rates maximization by researchers, 57
tasks, 62–63
survey sampling, 57, 59. See also convenience samples
symptoms, 94, 199, 201, 202
syndrome classification, 98
synthesis as skill, 6
System 1
dual process cognition accounts and, 123–124
errors as predicable, 124
informal logical fallacies and, 124
as quick and effortless mental processes, 124
System 2
as deliberate rule-based system, 124
dual process cognition accounts and, 123–124
engagement of, 124
and errors in belief, 125
formal logical principles use in, 124
healthy skepticism and, 125
incipient errors recognition by, 125
questions to ask self, 126
sense of accountability and, 126
use and fallacy avoidance, 127
take-home message, 172
talks
as advertisements for research, 193
communicating claims in, 192
communication goals in, 192
listeners in, 193
making claims in, 192
and possible implications of research, 193
as precursor to writing, 192
research claims made in, 177–194
special consideration in giving, 192–193
techniques for effective, 192–193
us of examples in, 193
targets, 226, 245–246
taxonomies, 6, 7, 8–9
teaching, 1, 253
teaching methods, 7
teaching psychologists, 274
technological innovation, 155
telephones, 56–57
temporal precedence, 137
test(s)
assumptions and research questions, 76
of beliefs, 268
as beneficial to long term retention, 16
of ceiling and floor effects, 83
of cognitive components and case studies, 104
of hypotheses and predictions, 266
MMPI and Rorschach as valid, 205
as never definitive, 47
of new data and parapsychology meta-analyses, 228
observations and trust of, 47
of power calculations, 79
for psychopathology in mental disorders, 199
simplicity and experiment design, 166
and theory comparison, 154
use in case studies, 99
testability hypothesis, 103
testing
of case studies and clinician experience, 206
of causal relationships, 47
cognition study with group, 93
as group difference threat to causal inferences, 45
recipes in science vs astrology, 263–264
tests. See also assessments
tetrahedral model of context of experimental results, 28
theoretical advancement, 172
theoretical foundations, 141
theoretical interest, 141
theoretical leanings, 141
theory(ies), 143, 293
in abstract, 186–188
adequacy, 262
characteristics of successful, 144–145
claims challenging prevailing, 2
criteria for, 145–156
explanatory coherence of, 173
outline as research report introduction goal, 162
as relationship between variables, 16
revision and replacement, 217
in science and parapsychology, 217
theory evaluation criteria
breadth, 153
coherence and consistency, 148–149
explanation, 150–151
falsifiability, 149–150
originality, 154
postdiction, 150–151
prediction, 149–150
theory of psi, 229
therapeutic skills, 206
therapists, 203, 209, 233
therapy, 201, 205
promotion of demonstrated, 209
termination, 277
in underserved areas, 277
thinking
anchor and starting points in, 4
anchoring and adjusting values when, 5
boldly required by good science, 177
characterization of noncritical, 1–2
classroom teaching of lower level, 1
science vs astrology as example of clear, 262–263
scientific theories and outmoded, 264–265
thinking framework approach, 12
thinking skills
alternative way of categorizing, 7
identification and definition of, 9
making up successful intelligence, 7
preferences and teaching methods, 7
skills-based approach to, 7
student spontaneous application of, 10
transfer across academic domains, 9
valued in school setting, 7
Thinking Skills Review Group, 9
thinking style, 272
third person effect, 245
third-variable problem, 137
thought control, 246
time scales, 152
time-series, 43, 55
titles
examples of, 188–189
as hooks for papers, 189
of research reports, 164
writing of, 188–189
total error, 58
training
APA Ethics Code and psychologist, 276
in authority uses and ads resistance, 236
to be better reasoners, 125
Transfer Appropriate Processing (TAP), 148
transferability of critical thinking skills, 10
treatment
clinical case studies as approach to, 91
empirical support conditions for, 209
importance of diagnosis to, 205
of patients in research design ethical decision-making, 284–287
programs and patient belief system, 207
randomized control studies and, 210
randomized controlled trails and, 206–208
selection and outcome studies, 206
of sexual addition, 198
specific form of effective clinical, 205–210
study internal validity and equation of conditions, 133
as type of clinical inference, 196
treatment conditions, 41, 135
treatment effectiveness
evaluations vs efficacy, 208
evidence needed for establishment of, 209
evidence requirements, 209
treatment groups
control groups as different from, 42
difference identification and causal inference, 44
quasi-experiment matching with control groups, 42
treatment outcomes, 207, 208
trust of psychology, 271
truth, 183, 253
and beliefs, 252
beliefs and, 261
fallacy of ignorance and, 117
science and, 174, 261
and weird beliefs, 268
tunnel vision, 121–123
Tversky, Amos, 193
type 1 errors, 79, 86
type 2 errors, 79, 86
ulterior motives identification, 245–246
underserved areas, 277
unification of psychology, 153
universal assumption, 96
unproven medical practices, 233
unstructured interviews, 203–204
usability, 144, 154–156
validation
of beliefs, 253–255
complexity of belief, 255
of hypothetical constructs, 200
science and accepted standards for, 261–267
validity
and beliefs, 252, 253
Campbell’s threat to causal inference, 44–46
of clinician judgments and biases, 210
context effect and, 65, 72
of DSM-IV-TR system, 202
of evidence in assessments by psychologists, 197
experiment design for internal and ecological, 169
as experimental research question, 34
of group averaging assumptions, 98
of hypothetical constructs, 200
of inferences and individual cognitive ability scores, 98
as internal and external, 26
judgments as heuristic, 245
of MMPI and Rorschach test, 205
of neuropsychological testing platform and impairment profile, 102
of psychiatric diagnoses, 202–203
of psychological assessment methods, 205
quasi-experimentation plausibility and, 48
questions for assessing unknown, 295
value judgments, 201
variability, 77–78
variable(s), 18, 34
in causal relations, 43
covariation assessment, 55
cross sectional surveys and, 55
definition, 17
experimental manipulation of, 60
formal models and, 147
operationalization, 134
partial correlation variance and analysis of, 83–84
prediction and control over, 151
in quasi-experiments, 43, 44
in research reports, 164, 165
statistical control in surveys, 60
variable of interest. See independent variables
manipulation of, 131, 135
subject cohort and association with, 138
within-subject manipulation confounds, 134
variance analogues, 83–84
variation, 131
verbal theories, 143
victim personality, 235
victimization prediction, 235
violence prediction, 196, 211
virtue, 278. See also ethical principles; moral values
visual survey formats, 67
Vonnegut, Kurt, 239
Wallis, W. Allan, 219
web site surveys, 59
weighting procedures for subgroups, 59
weird beliefs, 268
welfare of others, 281–284
Wernicke’s aphasics, 95
Westinghouse Learning Corp. Head Start program effectiveness study, 38
wisdom, 7
wishes and beliefs, 254
wishful thinking, 237
within-subjects design, 18–20, 21
as between-subjects design, 20
definition, 19
differential carryover effect in, 20
as experimental research question, 34
repetition strategy in, 20
and variable operationalization, 134
within-subjects manipulation, 131, 134
word association norms, 23–25
word production, 96
model, 96
wording, 289
meaning survey questions, 63
in opinion polls, 3
question wording issue context effect, 65–66
of survey questions, 68, 289
words
categorical context and meaning of, 31
encoding strategies of subjects in false memory research, 32
in memory research, 30
survey question literal meaning and, 63
working memory capacity, 93, 149
World Health Organization, 202
writing
of abstracts, 184–188
of discussion section, 191–192
of empirical journal articles, 161
evaluating of own, 181
of introduction section, 189–191
as iterative process, 191
persuasiveness and clarity in, 294
questions for polls, 2
report introduction process of, 165
of results section, 191
of results section data description, 169
talk as precursor to, 192
of titles, 188–189
zero-sum fallacy, 115