actors and networks, 24–26
analysis of, 110–112
in chemical industry, 398–399
effects of changes in knowledge base upon, 471–476
in mobile telecommunications sector, 178
in pharmaceutical industry, 112–115
in sectoral systems of innovation, 18
in software industry, 194
adoption externalities, 231–233
aggregation, 17, 35
airports, 299–304, 414–415
application software, 204, 221
appropriability mechanisms, 13
automobile industry, of Japan, 421
“banking,” 337–339
Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, 102, 331–335
biomedical research, 82–84
in Europe, 83
institutional structure of, 83
public spending on, 82–83
“BioRegio” competition, 361, 393
biotechnology industry
see also pharmaceutical industry
aggregate analysis of, 54–59
coexistence of local, national and global dimensions, 480
effects of changes in knowledge base upon, 472–473
of France, 394–395
of Germany, 397
history-friendly model of, 32–33
intellectual property rights, 101–102
international performance of, 391–397, 488–491
new biotechnology firms (NBFs), 92–94
patent applications, 54
of United Kingdom, 375–381, 393, 394–395
of United States, 392, 393–397
broadband Internet access, 167
browsers, Web, 226–227
capacity assessment, 300
cataracts remedy, 304–307, 415
CD-ROMs, 234
CEPT (Conference on European Post and Telecommunications), 171
CERN (Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire), 165
characterization of various sectoral systems, 466–467
chemical industry, 121–151
actors and networks in, 398–399
aggregate analysis of, 59–60
cluster vs. non-cluster regions and patent characteristics, 140
coexistence of local, national and global dimensions, 480–481
discontinuities in, 150
downstream markets, 124
effects of changes in knowledge base upon, 473–474
evolutionary and coevolutionary processes, 131–133, 135
firms’ characteristics vs. patent characteristics, 138
foreign investments, 129
of France, 146
of Germany, 123, 128, 134, 144
globalization of, 129
inorganic products, 125
international performance, 129–130, 493–494
of Italy, 146
of Japan, 123, 144, 146
knowledge generation in, 135–141, 151
licensing agreements, 144, 144, 145, 146
mergers and acquisitions, 130
overview, 121–122
patents, 47, 59, 135–136
patterns of technology diffusion in, 142–150
licensing strategies, 147–150
markets for technical knowledge, 144–147
separability and transferability as factors in, 142–144
research and development, 60, 123–124
sectoral systems in, 150
sector boundaries, 122–129
industry structure and corporate strategies, 122–125
sectoral innovative patterns, 125–129
synthetic dyestuff model, 125–126
technological clusters, firms and patent characteristics, 141
technology strategies, 149
of United Kingdom, 123, 125, 144
of United States, 123, 134, 144, 146, 399–400
after World War I, 131–132
after World War II, 132
China, machine tool industry of, 246, 248
client-server technology, 224–225
CMEs (industry-coordinated market economies), 352–358
code division multiple access (CDMA), 173
coevolutionary processes, 30–31, 33, 133–135, 150, 481–485
collaborative relations, 96–98
co-localized patents, 138, 136–139
commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software, see packaged software industry
competency orchestration within firms, 379–381
Conference on European Post and Telecommunications (CEPT), 171
Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (CERN), 165
cooperating, learning by, 301–302
co-production, 300
core function vs. peripheral form of services, 291–292, 314–315
corporate governance, 337–339
COTS (commercial off-the-shelf) software, see packaged software industry
crippleware, 234
de-localized patents, 138, 136–139
demand, 28–29, 291–292, 314–315
development blocks, 14
digital subscriber lines, 166–167
digitization, 160
dynamics, sectoral, see sectoral dynamics and structural change
education, 335–337
and international performance of European sectoral systems, 392–393, 416
electronics industry, patent shares in, 47
embedded software, 205, 214, 223–224
discontinuity in, 223–224
European market, 240
European specialization in, 407–410
independent enterprises, 223
university research on, 223
entrepreneurship, see high-technology entrepreneurship in Europe
environmental technologies, 133–135
Ericsson (Swedish telecommunications equipment manufacturer), 168, 172, 188, 371, 373–375
ERP (enterprise resource planning) software, 215
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute), 171, 174
Europe
see also high-technology entrepreneurship in Europe; names of specific European countries
biotechnology industry, 391–397
chemical industry, 60, 123, 397–400
GSM services, 170–173
international performance of sectoral systems, 388–423
chemical industry, 397–400
and industrial leadership, 389–391, 416–418
machine tool industry, 410–414
non-price competitiveness, 418–419
overview, 388–389
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology industry, 391–397
product range and differentiation, 418–419
services sector, 414–416
software industry, 404–410
stages in industry life cycle and role of science, 420–421
telecommunications equipment and services industry, 400–404
machinery tool industry, 62, 410–414
mobile telecommunications, 187–188
patent shares in high-growth technological classes, 47
pharmaceuticals industry, 87, 106, 391–397
software industry, 404–407, 410
technology policy, 427–459
and geographical dimensions of sectoral systems, 444–445
impact of general or horizontal policies, 442–443
other needed policies, 443–444
overview, 427–429
in periods of radical technological change, 445–447
policy conclusions, 445
policy targets, 441–442
public policy intervention, 429–439
requirements for analysis of the rationale and effects of, 442–443
role of policy maker, 444
sector-specific policy conclusions, 447–458
telecommunications equipment and services, 400–404
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), 171, 174
evolutionary theory, 14–15
export market shares, 57, 67
filieres, 14
“financial market” systems, 337–339
financing of innovation, 337–339
firms, 24–25, 312–313
formal cooperation among, 26
heterogeneity of, 25
fixed Internet and mobile telecommunications, 155–167, 191
mobile telecommunications, 167–179
first-generation, 170
second-generation, 170–174
third-generation, 174–179
overview, 155–156
policies and strategies, 184–191
fixed Internet, 184–185
future of sectoral systems, 188–190
important policy issues, 190
mobile telecommunications, 185–188
public policy intervention, 190–191
relations between organizations and institutions, 190
roles of institutions in, 190
rate structures and levels, 180–181, 182
satellite communications, 179–180
sectoral system of innovation in, 157–191
functions and organizations, 158–160
institutional changes and consequences for organizations and functions, 161–182
overview, 157–158
system boundaries and subsystem convergence, 182–184
France
biotechnology industry, 394–395
chemical industry, 146
machine tool industry, 246, 249
patent and/or export shares, 51, 52, 53, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66
Fraunhofer Manufacturing Innovation Survey, 257, 256–257, 258
freeware, 234
geographical boundaries, and international performance comparisons, 291–292, 315–316
geographical proximity, 122, 135–141
Germany
biotechnology industry, 361, 397
chemical industry, 123, 128, 134, 144
as industry-coordinated market economy (CME), 353, 354–356
machine tool industry, 253–271, 411, 413
basic characteristics of, 253
example of knowledge and learning processes, 260, 258–261, 262
Fraunhofer Manufacturing Innovation Survey, 257, 256–257, 258, 481
industrial and technology policy, 256
mobile fuel cells, 262–267
sector organization, 254–255
strategies to improve competitiveness in, 279
structure of, 253–254
technological trends, 262–267
tool production/consumption, 245, 246, 247–248
user-supplier relationships, 255
and “new economy,” 360–371
constraint-based explanations, 368–369
institutions and competencies within firms, 367–368
overview, 360–363
sources of comparative institutional advantage, 369–371
subsector specialization by “new economy” firms, 365–367
number of scientific references, 366
patent and/or export shares, 47, 51, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67
software industry, 408
technology policy, 446
venture capital, 360, 396
global software product companies, 209–213
competitive dynamics, 212–213
global vs. specialized or situated software, 208
market analysis, 212
product design, 210–211
product innovation, 209–210
proprietary standards, 211
users of global software, 210
Global System for Mobile Communications, see GSM (global system for mobile communications)
GPRS (general packet radio service), 175–176
green industry, 134
GSM (global system for mobile communications), 170–174
and deregulation of telecommunications industry, 173
development of, 171
in Europe, 170–173
intellectual property rights, 172
policies and strategies, 186
rate structures and levels, 180–181
vs. UMTS (universal mobile telecommunications system), 175
in United States, 173–174
wireless data transmission, 175
guided research, 89
healthcare industry, 106
see also biotechnology industry; pharmaceutical industry
healthcare systems, 86–89
health research, 82–83
high-technology entrepreneurship in Europe, 348–366
conclusion and implications for policy, 381–384
overview, 348–349
subsector specialization in sectoral systems of innovation, 358–381
see also Germany, and “new economy”
biotechnology sectoral system in United Kingdom, 375–381
Internet software industrial systems in Sweden, 371–375
overview, 358–360
varieties of capitalism and sectoral systems of innovation, 349–358
high-technology industries
see also software industry
economic and innovative weight of, 66
patent shares in, 47
in United States, 348
history-friendly models, 32–33
IAPs (Internet access providers), 156, 159
ICPs (Internet content providers), 156, 159–160
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), 163–164
i-mode mobile Internet system, 176, 188–189
industrial leadership
in Europe, 389–391, 416–418
in United States, 405–407
industrial relations systems, 335–337
industry-coordinated market economies (CMEs), 352–358
information technology (IT) services, 203
innovations
see also sectoral systems of innovation
appropriability of, 21
differences across sectoral systems, 23
differences in countries’ performance in, 45
effect of technology policies on, 65
financing of, 337–339
national systems of, 10, 33–34
in pharmaceutical industry, 81
sources, 13
innovation system approach, 14
institutional complementarities, 339–340
institutions, 27–28, 290, 314
see also national institutional frameworks
definition of, 161
in fixed Internet and mobile telecommunications, 157, 190
in sectoral systems of innovation, 18
in software industry, 225–226
integrated software solutions, European specialization in, 407–410
integrated software solution software, see ISS (integrated software solution) software
intellectual property rights, 101–102, 393–395
international performance
chemical industry, 493–494
European sectoral systems, 388–423, 488–500
chemical industry, 397–400
and industrial leadership, 389–391, 416–418
machine tool industry, 410–414
non-price competitiveness, 418–419
overview, 388–389
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sector, 391–397
product range and differentiation, 418–419
services sector, 414–416
software industry, 404–410
stages in industry life cycle and role of science, 420–421
telecommunications equipment and services sector, 400–404
machine tool industry, 497–500
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, 488–491
software industry, 494–497
telecommunications equipment and services, 491–492
Internet, 161–167
see also fixed Internet and mobile telecommunications
access to, 166–167
consultancy firms, 160
convergence
with mobile telecommunications, 183
with traditional telecommunications, 182–184
data transmission, 164
development of
government agencies in, 163, 184
public funds in, 165
equipment industry, 165–166, 185
IAPs (Internet access providers), 156, 159
ICPs (Internet content providers), 156, 159–160
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), 163–164
i-mode mobile Internet system, 176, 188–189
open standards in, 185
penetration rate, 181–182, 189
policies and strategies, 184–185
in software distribution, 234
Swedish Internet software industrial systems, 371–375
Web browsers, 226–227
intra-ocular lenses (IOLs), 304–307, 415
inventors, network of, 137
ISS (integrated software solution) software, 215
dynamics of competition, 216
impact of software service companies, 217–218
integration and implementation issues, 218–219
sectoral system of innovation in, 219
user interface, 216–217
Italy
chemical industry, 146
Internet access in, 181–182
machine tool industry, 267–271, 411–412, 413
in-house development and production activities, 269
specialization strategies and developments in innovation leadership, 268
structure of, 267–268
tool production/consumption by, 245, 246, 248
patent and/or export shares, 47, 50, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67
telecommunications equipment and services, 164, 402
IT (information technology) services, 203
Japan
automobile industry, 421
chemical industry, 123, 144, 146
innovation, performance and structural change in, 44–53
Internet access in, 182
machine tool industry, 271–275, 411, 412–413
size of Japanese machine tool manufacturers, 272
tool production/consumption by, 246, 248
patent and/or export shares, 47, 59, 61, 62, 63, 66, 67
pharmaceutical industry, 80, 84, 86, 87, 88
software industry, 222, 407
telecommunications equipment and services, 401
Kefauver-Harris Amendment Act of 1962, 84–85
knowledge, 18–24
cumulativeness of, 20
and learning processes example, 258–262
in sectoral systems of innovation, 17
knowledge bases, 311–312, 332–335, 467–471
effects of changes on actors and networks, 471–476
and European chemicals industry, 397–398
and European pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, 391–392
properties of, 21
laboratories, 83–84
labor markets, 335–337
labor productivity, 45, 57
leadership, see industrial leadership
learning processes, 311–312
learning regimes, 21
liberal market economies (LMEs), 352–358
licensing, 144, 145, 197–200
LMEs (liberal market economies), 352–358
local systems, 33–34
location in space of materials, energy and information, 290, 314
machinery and equipment industry
aggregate analysis of, 62–63
growth in productivity, 62
patent shares, 62
patent shares in, 47
machine tool industry, 243–280
of China, 246, 248
coexistence of local, national and global dimensions, 481
economic and structural trends in, 245–253
effects of changes in knowledge base upon, 476
European international performance of sectoral systems, 410–414
of France, 246, 249
of Germany, 253–271, 411, 413
knowledge and learning processes example, 260, 258–261, 262
Fraunhofer Manufacturing Innovation Survey, 256–258
industrial and technology policy, 256
mobile fuel cells, 262–267
sector organization, 254–255
strategies to improve competitiveness in, 279
structure of, 253–254
technological trends, 262–267
tool production/consumption by, 245, 246, 247–248
user-supplier relationships, 255
international performance, 497–500
of Italy, 267–271, 411–412, 413
in-house development and production activities, 269
specialization strategies and developments in innovation leadership, 268
structure of, 267–268
tool production/consumption by, 246, 248
of Japan, 271–275, 411, 412–413
size of Japanese machine tool manufacturers, 272
tool production/consumption by, 246, 248
overview, 243–244
of South Korea, 246, 248
of Spain, 246, 249
of Switzerland, 246, 248–249
of Taiwan, 246, 248
of United Kingdom, 246, 249, 412
of United States, 275–279, 411, 413
strategies to improve competitiveness in, 279
structure and development of, 275
technological and organizational innovation capability, 277–279
tool production/consumption by, 246, 245–246, 247, 248
market
as central institution, 328–329
size of, and international performance of European sectoral systems, 417
medical schools, 84
Medicine Act of 1971, 84
mergers and acquisitions
in chemical industry, 130
in pharmaceutical industry, 74–75, 98–100
middleware, 215–219, 239
mobile telecommunications, 167–179, 188
see also fixed Internet and mobile telecommunications
actors in, 178
convergence with fixed Internet, 183
in Europe, 187–188
first-generation (NMT), 170
foreign standards, 174
policies and strategies, 185–188
second-generation (GSM), 170–174
third-generation (UMTS/WLAN), 174–179
in United States, 188
molecular biology, 90, 94–95
molecular genetics, 90
multimedia software, 205, 407–410
multinational corporations, 34–35
national healthcare systems, 78
national health services, 86
national institutional frameworks, 325–345
double nature and dimension of institutions, 326–328
market as central institution, 328–329
overview, 325–326
relevance for innovation, 476–479
relevant institutions, 331–339
sectoral relevance and specificities, 339–344
types and structure of institutions, 329–331
national institutions, 27–28
national systems of innovation, 10, 33–34
NBFs (new biotechnology firms), see new biotechnology firms (NBFs)
NCEs (new chemical entities), see new chemical entities (NCEs)
network computing, 224–227
networks, see actors and networks
Neuer Markt stock exchange, 362, 366–367
new biotechnology firms (NBFs), 92–94
collaborative relations, 97
mergers and acquisitions (M&A), 98
as spin-offs of industry-university cooperation, 101
new chemical entities (NCEs), 79–80
“new economy,” and Germany, 360–371
constraint-based explanations, 368–369
institutions and competencies within firms, 367–368
overview, 360–363
sector to subsector systems of innovation, 363–365
sources of comparative institutional advantage, 369–371
subsector specialization by “new economy” firms, 365–367
NMT (Nordic Mobile Telecommunications), 167–170, 185
non-firm organizations, 25, 312–313
non-price competitiveness, 418–419
Nordic Mobile Telecommunications (NMT), 167–170, 185
OII model, 340–344
open-source software, 235–241, 407–410
operating systems, 203–204, 220, 221
organizational proximity, 122, 135–141
organizations, definition of, 158
packaged software industry, 197, 233–234
characteristics of, 404–405
distribution of packaged software, 237–238
dominance of packaged software in United States, 196
European market share, 197
European opportunities in, 405–407
global sales of packaged software, 196
and ISS (integrated software solution), 218
software modules in packaged software, 215
United States’ industrial leadership in, 405–407
packet-switching technology, 161
patent applications, 45
analysis of, 66–67
telecommunications industry, 61
patents, 51
chemical industry, 80, 135–136
co-localized, 138, 136–139
de-localized, 138, 136–139
machinery and equipment industry, 62
structural decomposition analysis, 50–53
telecommunications industry, 61
peripheral form vs. core function of services, 291–292, 314–315
pharmaceutical industry, 73–116
see also biotechnology industry
actors and networks in, 112–115
adoption of molecular biology, 94–95
advent of molecular biology and age of cost containment, 89–110
changes in demand and in regulation, 104–107
decline of European competitiveness, 107–110
institutional preconditions and their changes, 100–104
learning regimes and innovative activities, 91–100
scientific revolution and new learning regime, 89–91
aggregate analysis of, 54–59
cost containment in, 104–107
in Europe, 99, 107–110, 116
decline of competitiveness, 107–110
international performance of sectoral systems, 391–397
export market shares, 59
growth in value added and labor productivity, 59
history-friendly model of, 32–33
industry-university relations, 100–104
innovative activities, 81
knowledge-related mechanisms in, 80–81
mergers and acquisitions, 98–100
network of collaborative relations, 96–98
network relations, 82–89
biomedical research, 82–84
demand growth, 86–89
healthcare systems, 86–89
product approval procedures, 84–86
regulation, 86–89
overview, 73–76
patents, 80
pharmaceutical benefit management (PBM) companies, 106
pharmaceutical expenditure, 104–105
price regulation in, 86–88
regulation of, 105–106
research and development, 77
advances in, 90–91
collaborative relations, 96–98
co-specialized technologies, 91
costs of, 98–99
spending, 78
sectoral system of innovation in, 76–89, 110
changes in network of relations, 82–89
commitments of relevance, 74–75
early stage of the industry, 77–78
linking empirical evidence to theory, 110–116
random screening period, 78–82
specialized producers, 77
strategic orientation and innovations, 81–82
venture capital, 100–104
physical form of materials, energy and information, 290, 314
platform technologies, 94
POE model, 340–344
policy implications, 500–503
postgraduate studies, 101
production, sectoral systems of, 16–17
product range and differentiation, in Europe, 418–419
programming, 237
public technology procurement, 168, 190–191
“public venture capital” programs, 381–382, see also venture capital
Qiagen (German biotechnology company), 364, 365
recycling technologies, 134
regional/local innovation systems, 10
research
in biomedical industry, 82–84
institutional structure of, 83
public spending on, 82–83
in chemical industry, 60, 123–124
guided, 89
health, 82–83
and international performance of European sectoral systems, 392–393, 416
in pharmaceutical industry, 77
costs of, 98–99
random screening period, 78
spending, 78
retailing
European, 415–416
and transformation of distribution, 307–311
in United Kingdom, 415–416
Schumpeter Mark I models, 12, 22–23
Schumpeter Mark II models, 12, 22–23
sectoral dynamics and structural change, 42–67
aggregate analysis of sectors, 54–63
chemicals, 59–60
machinery and equipment, 62–63
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, 54–59
telecommunications, 60–62
innovation, performance and structural change, 44–53
structural change, 44–50
structural decomposition of patent share dynamics, 50–53
innovation system perspective, 63–65
overview, 42–44
sectoral systems (in general), 35–36
differences in patterns of innovative activities, 23
interdependence of variables, 65
and international performance of countries/regions, 34
and national/local systems, 33–34
sectoral systems of innovation, 9–35
antecedents and theoretical bases, 11–15
building blocks of, 17–29
actors and networks, 18, 24–26
demand, 28–29
institutions, 18, 27–28
knowledge and technologies, 17, 18–24
definition and framework, 16–17
dynamics and transformation of, 29–33
coevolution process, 30–33
selection and variety generation processes, 29–30
functions, 157–158
overview, 9
regional and national dimensions, 33–35
sectoral systems of production, 16–17
sectors, 9
analysis of, 17, 66
appropriability mechanisms, 13
boundaries of, 14
change and transformation in, 13–14
link and interdependencies, 14
main dimensions of, 35
sources of innovation, 13
SEFs (specialized engineering firms), 144–146
and market for technical knowledge, 143–144
market share of, 146
ties with chemical companies, 128
selection processes, 30
services and sectoral systems, 414–416, 485–488
services and systems of innovation, 287
airports and creation of runway capacity, 299–304
core function vs. peripheral form of services, 291–292, 314–315
diversity in services, 293–294
duration of engagement between service provider and service user, 292–293
elements of systems of innovation, 311–316
demand, 291–292, 314–315
firms, non-firm organizations and networks, 312–313
geographical boundaries and international performance comparisons, 291–292, 315–316
institutions, 290, 314
knowledge bases and learning processes, 311–312
overview, 311
health service and example of intra-ocular lenses, 304–307
innovation systems as problem- or opportunity-centered and contingent, 292, 316–319
organizational form of services, 292, 316–319
overview, 287–288
relational aspect of services, 291–292, 315–316
retailing and transformation of distribution, 307–311
taxonomy of innovation in services, 294–297
what services are, 289–297
Siemens (telecommunications equipment manufacturer), 375
software, overview of, 193
software industry, 193–241
see also packaged software industry
actors and networks in, 193
coexistence of local, national and global dimensions, 481
effects of changes in knowledge base upon, 474–476
embedded software, 205, 214, 223–224
discontinuity in, 223–224
in Europe, 240, 407–410
independent enterprises, 223
university research on, 223
in Europe
distribution channels, 240
embedded software, 240, 407–410
employees, 201
foreign competitors, 238
of Germany, 408
internal software development in, 239
international performance of sectoral systems, 404–410
market value, 202
middleware, 239
non-generic software products, 239–240
open-source movement in, 237
open standards, 239
packaged software industry, 197, 405–407
software service companies, 217–218
specialization in software, 407–410
strategies for future of, 238–241
global software product companies, 209–213
competitive dynamics, 212–213
global vs. specialized or situated software, 208
market analysis, 212
product design, 210–211
product innovation, 209–210
proprietary standards, 211
users of global software, 210
innovative capabilities and organizations, 219–230
embedded software, 223–224
network computing, 224–227
summary, 229–241
technological change in software, 219–223
user interface, 227–228
institutions, 225–226
international performance, 494–497
ISS (integrated software solution) software, 215
dynamics of competition, 216
impact of software service companies, 217–218
integration and implementation issues, 218–219
sectoral system of innovation in, 219
user interface, 216–217
of Japan, 222, 407
knowledge generation in, 207–208, 222
licensing fees, 197–200
packaged software industry, 197, 233–234
characteristics of, 404–405
distribution of packaged software, 237–238
dominance of packaged software in United States, 196
European market share, 197
European opportunities in, 405–407
global sales of packaged software, 196
and ISS (integrated software solution), 218
software modules in packaged software, 215
United States’ industrial leadership in, 405–407
revenues, 197
sectoral system of innovation in, 207
software commercialization, 230–238
adoption externalities, 231–233
distribution channels, 233–235
open-source movement, 235–241
software creation, 207–219
global software product company, 209–213
middleware, 215–219
out of necessity and for fun, 213–215
software distribution, 231–232
open-source, 235–241
sector-spanning innovation in, 235
strategies for future of, 238–241
Swedish Internet software industrial systems, 371–375
trade indicators, 199
of United States, 405–407, 408–409, 410
South Korea, machine tool industry of, 246, 248
Spain
machine tool industry, 246, 249
patent and/or export shares, 47, 51, 52, 53, 59, 60, 62, 63, 67
specialized engineering firms, see SEFs (specialized engineering firms)
structural changes, 48, 44–49, 50
structural decomposition analysis, 46, 52, 66
structural technology effect, 50
“success breeds success” process, 20
suppliers, 12, 24–25
Sweden
Internet access in, 181–182
Internet software industrial systems, 371–375
retailing and transformation of distribution, 307–311
telecommunications industry, 164
Switzerland
machine tool industry, 246, 248–249
patent and/or export shares, 51
synthetic dye industry, 77
Taiwan, machine tool industry of, 246, 248
technological classes, 45, 46
technological opportunities, 20, 21
technological regimes, 21
change in, 22–23
and innovation in sectoral systems, 21–22
specificities of, 23
technological systems, 10
technologies, 18–24
see also high-technology entrepreneurship in Europe
co-specialized, 91
and international performance of European sectoral systems, 417–418
links and complementarities, 18–19
net suppliers of, 12
in sectoral systems of innovation, 17
users of, 12
technology growth adaptation, 51
technology policy, 65
in Europe, 427–459
and geographical dimensions of sectoral systems, 444–445
impact of general or horizontal policies, 442–443
other needed policies, 443–444
overview, 427–429
in periods of radical technological change, 445–447
policy conclusions, 445
policy targets, 441–442
public policy intervention, 429–439
role of policy maker, 444
sector-specific policy conclusions, 447–458
in Germany, 446
in United States, 446, 453
technology share effect, 50
technology stagnation adaptation, 51
telecommunications equipment and services
aggregate analysis of, 60–62
deregulation of, 164, 185
effects of changes in knowledge base upon, 474–476
in European international performance of sectoral systems, 400–404
global production, 61
growth in value added and labor productivity, 61
growth rate, 189
international performance, 491–492
and Internet, 182–184
in Italy, 402
in Japan, 401
mobile telecommunications, 167–179, 188
see also fixed Internet and mobile telecommunications
actors in, 178
convergence with fixed Internet, 183
in Europe, 187–188
first-generation (NMT), 170
foreign standards, 174
policies and strategies, 185–188
second-generation (GSM), 170–174
third-generation (UMTS/WLAN), 174–179
in United States, 188
organizations in, 160–161
patent shares, 47, 61
regulations and standards, 401–403
standardization in, 186–187
in United Kingdom, 402
in United States, 400–403
temporal availability of materials, energy and information, 290, 314
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), 174–176
vs. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), 175
licenses, 176
market penetration, 177
United Kingdom
biotechnology industry, 375–381, 393, 394–395, 397
chemical industry, 144
competency orchestration within firms, 379–381
as liberal market economy (LME), 353, 357–358
machine tool industry, 246, 249, 412
mobile telecommunications, 169
pharmaceutical price regulation in, 88
retailing, 307–311, 415–416
telecommunications equipment and services, 164, 402
venture capital, 378–379
United States
biotechnology industry, 392, 393–397
chemical industry, 123, 134, 144, 146, 399–400
high-technology industries, 348
Internet access in, 181–182
machine tool industry, 275–279, 411, 413
strategies to improve competitiveness in, 279
structure and development of, 275
technological and organizational innovation capability, 277–279
tool production/consumption by, 246, 245–246, 247, 248
mobile telecommunications, 173–174, 188
number of scientific references, 366
patent shares in high-growth technological classes, 47, 64
pharmaceutical industry, 105–106, 107–110, 115–116, 488–491
software industry, 196, 405–407, 408–409, 410
technology policy, 446, 453
telecommunications equipment and services industry, 186–187, 400–403
venture capital, 396
unit operation, 127
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, see UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)
venture capital, 103–104, 381–382
and European pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, 396
in Germany, 360, 396
in United Kingdom, 378–379
in United States, 396
Web browsers, 226–227
World Wide Web (WWW), 165, 224–225, see also Internet