ROMAN WOMEN
This richly illustrated book examines the daily lives of Roman women by focusing on the mundane and less-celebrated aspects of daily life – family and household, work and leisure, worship and social obligations – of women of different social ranks. Using a variety of sources, including literary texts, letters, inscriptions, coins, tableware, furniture, and the fine arts, from the late republic to the high imperial period, Eve D’Ambra shows how these sources serve as objects of social analysis, rather than simply as documents that re-create how life was lived. She also demonstrates how texts and material objects take part in shaping realities and what they can tell us about the texture of lives and social attitudes, if not the emotions of women in Roman antiquity.
Eve D’Ambra is Professor and Chair of the Department of Art at Vassar College. She is the author of Roman Art (Cambridge, 1998).
CAMBRIDGE INTRODUCTION TO ROMAN CIVILIZATION
Cambridge Introduction to Roman Civilization is a program of books designed for use by students who have no prior knowledge of or familiarity with Roman antiquity. Books in this series focus on key topics, such as slavery, warfare, and women. They are intended to serve as a first point of reference for students who will then be equipped to seek more specialized scholarly and critical studies. Texts in these volumes are written in clear, jargon-free language and will integrate scholarship primary texts into a synthetics that reflects the most up-to-date research. All volumes in the series will be closely linked to readings and topics presented in the Cambridge Latin Course.
EVE D’AMBRA
Vassar College
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521818391
© Cambridge University Press 2007
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
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no reproduction of any part may take place without
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First published 2007
Printed in Hong Kong by Golden Cup
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
D’Ambra, Eve, 1956–
Roman women / Eve D’Ambra.
p. cm. – (Cambridge introduction to Roman civilization)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13: 978-0-521-81839-1 (hardcover)
ISBN-10: 0-521-81839-7 (hardcover)
ISBN-13: 978-0-521-52158-1 (pbk.)
ISBN-10: 0-521-52158-0 (pbk.)
1. Women – Rome – Social conditions. I. Title. II. Series.
HQ1136.D35 2006
305.48′871 – dc22 2005036464
ISBN-13 978-0-521-81839-1 hardback
ISBN-10 0-521-81839-7 hardback
ISBN-13 978-0-521-52158-1 paperback
ISBN-10 0-521-52158-0 paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for
the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or
third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such
Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
To My Mother and My Daughter
| List of Maps and Illustrations | page xi | ||
| Acknowledgments | xvii | ||
| 1 | Gender and Status | 1 | |
| 2 | Marriage and the Family | 45 | |
| 3 | Women’s Work | 93 | |
| 4 | Public Life | 141 | |
| Glossary | 181 | ||
| Roman Authors | 185 | ||
| Select Bibliography | 189 | ||
| Index | 195 |
| MAPS | |||
| Italy in the third–second centuries B.C. | page xx | ||
| The Roman empire in the late second century C.E. | xxi | ||
| CHAPTER 1 | |||
| 1 | Painting of a woman’s toilette, early first century C.E. | 5 | |
| 2 | Compact in the form of a shell, mid-second century C.E. | 6 | |
| 3 | Clay lamp depicting a woman bathing, mid-second century C.E. | 7 | |
| 4 | Relief panel depicting the Rape of the Sabine Women, first century B.C.E. | 11 | |
| 5 | Frieze A of the Cancelleria Reliefs, 93–95 C.E. | 15 | |
| 6 | Painted panel of a boy, ca. 138–192 C.E. | 17 | |
| 7 | Statue of a Woman, early second century C.E. | 19 | |
| 8 | Statue of a Woman, early second century C.E. | 19 | |
| 9 | Reconstruction of the Fountain of Herodes Atticus at the Sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece, ca. 150 C.E. | 21 | |
| 10 | Gate of Plancia Magna, Perge, Turkey, ca. 120 C.E. | 23 | |
| 11 | Relief of a potter and his wife, late first–early second centuries C.E. | 25 | |
| 12 | Relief from the funerary altar dedicated by Naevoleia Tyche, Pompeii, mid–first century C.E. | 29 | |
| 13 | Altar with relief depicting Quinta Claudia bringing in the cult image of the Great Mother, mid–first century C.E. | 33 | |
| 14 | Tellus panel of the Ara Pacis, Rome, 13–9 B.C.E. | 35 | |
| 15 | The Arch of the Sergii in Pula, Croatia, 2–20 C.E. | 37 | |
| 16 | Scene of benefaction from the Arch of Trajan at Benevento, 114–118 C.E. | 39 | |
| 17 | Bronze mask from Serre di Rapolano, first century C.E. | 41 | |
| 18 | The Column of Trajan, Rome, 113 C.E. | 42 | |
| 19 | Trophy of Trajan, Adamklissi, 109 C.E. depicting a Dacian family fleeing in an oxcart as refugees. | 43 | |
| CHAPTER 2 | |||
| 20 | Glass cup with scenes of gladiators in relief, 50–80 C.E. | 50 | |
| 21 | Relief of the family of Lucius Vibius Felix, 13 B.C.E.–5 C.E. | 51 | |
| 22 | Wall Painting from the House of the Chaste Lovers, IX, 12, 6–7, first century C.E. | 56 | |
| 23 | Lid of a marble arcophagus from Vulci, mid–fourth century B.C.E. | 57 | |
| 24 | Marble ash urn, first–second centuries C.E. | 60 | |
| 25 | Ivory jointed doll, mid–second century C.E. | 61 | |
| 26 | Profile view of ivory doll | 63 | |
| 27 | Stele of Lutatia Lupata, mid-late second century C.E. | 65 | |
| 28 | Front of the altar of Julia Victorina, 60–70 C.E. | 67 | |
| 29 | Back of the altar of Julia Victorina, 60–70 C.E. | 67 | |
| 30 | Altar of Minucia Suavis, ca. 50–75 C.E. | 70 | |
| 31 | Betrothal rings, second–fourth centuries C.E. | 71 | |
| 32 | The Aldobrandini Wedding Painting, late–early first centuries B.C.E.–C.E. | 75 | |
| 33 | Altar of Cominia Tyche, ca. 85–100 C.E. | 79 | |
| 34 | Kline sculpture of a married couple, early second century C.E. | 81 | |
| 35 | Funerary relief of Lucius Aurelius Hermia and his wife Aurelia Philematium, first century B.C.E. | 83 | |
| 36 | Tombstone of Flavia Augustina, third century C.E. | 85 | |
| 37 | Vaginal speculum, first century C.E. | 86 | |
| 38 | Terracotta relief from the Tomb of Scribonia Attice, mid–second century C.E. | 87 | |
| 39 | Altar of Julia Secunda and Cornelia Tyche, ca. 150–165 C.E. | 89 | |
| 40 | Mummy portrait of Demo, late first century C.E. | 90 | |
| 41 | Mummy portrait of little girl, late first century C.E. | 90 | |
| CHAPTER 3 | |||
| 42 | Fragment of a waxed tabula with reconstruction, second–third centuries C.E. | 96 | |
| 43 | Plan of the House of the Menander, third century B.C.E.–first century C.E. | 97 | |
| 44 | Painting from House of the banker L. Caecilius Iucundus (V, 1, 26), first century C.E. | 98 | |
| 45 | Reconstruction of a Roman kitchen. | 99 | |
| 46 | Mildenhall Treasure, fourth century C.E. | 100 | |
| 47 | Everyday ware. | 101 | |
| 48 | Reconstructed tavern and takeout shop in Ostia, third century C.E. | 102 | |
| 49 | Interior of sarcophagus, second century C.E. | 103 | |
| 50 | Table leg from Colliton Park. | 104 | |
| 51 | Terrace Houses, House A, Ephesus, view through peristyle, second century C.E. | 105 | |
| 52 | Ivory relief of Trajan and his army, early second century C.E. | 105 | |
| 53 | Funerary Stele of wet nurse, Severina, cradle scene (side), late third century C.E. | 108 | |
| 54 | Funerary Stele of wet nurse, Severina, nursing scene (side), late third century C.E. | 108 | |
| 55 | Sarcophagus depicting children playing and riding in carts, second century C.E. | 109 | |
| 56 | Sarcophagus of M. Cornelius Statius, mid–second century C.E. | 110 | |
| 57 | A bathing and reading scene on a sarcophagus, second century C.E. | 111 | |
| 58 | Relief depicting a matron’s toilette from a funerary monument, third century C.E. | 113 | |
| 59 | Portrait of a young woman from Antinoopolis, mid–second century C.E. | 116 | |
| 60 | Chatelaine. | 117 | |
| 61 | Silver mirror, second century C.E. | 118 | |
| 62 | Head of auburn hair, York, fourth century C.E. | 119 | |
| 63 | Ivory comb, third century C.E. | 120 | |
| 64 | Marble wig, late first century C.E. | 120 | |
| 65 | Marble portrait bust of Claudia Olympias, mid–second century C.E. | 121 | |
| 66 | Hairpin. | 122 | |
| 67 | Stucco relief from La Marsa, mid–second century C.E. | 123 | |
| 68 | Stucco relief from La Marsa, mid–second century C.E. | 123 | |
| 69 | Necklace with crescent pendant, second century C.E. | 124 | |
| 70 | The “Golden Girl,” early second century C.E. | 125 | |
| 71 | Mummy portrait of mature woman, ca. 161–192 C.E. | 126 | |
| 72 | Palmyrene relief commemorating Aththaia, late second century C.E. | 127 | |
| 73 | Wooden tablet with birthday invitation from Claudia Severa to Sulpicia Lepidina, 90–105 C.E. | 130 | |
| 74 | Aerial view of Housesteads Fort. | 131 | |
| 75 | Woman’s leather sandal stamped with maker’s name, L. Aebutius Thales, second century C.E. | 132 | |
| 76 | Relief depicting a covered wagon in the Church of S. Maria Saal, second century C.E. | 133 | |
| 77 | Portrait of Hermione, mid–first century C.E. | 136 | |
| 78 | Relief of a butcher’s shop, mid–second century C.E. | 137 | |
| 79 | Relief of a greengrocer, late second century C.E. | 138 | |
| 80 | Relief of a poultry vendor, late second century C.E. | 139 | |
| CHAPTER 4 | |||
| 81 | Statue of Helena, fourth century C.E. | 147 | |
| 82 | Portrait of Livia from Fayum, 4–14 C.E. | 150 | |
| 83 | Middle of the frieze of the south side of the Ara Pacis, 13–9 B.C.E. | 151 | |
| 84 | Statue of Livia as Fortuna from Pozzuoli, mid–first century C.E. | 153 | |
| 85 | Sardonyx of Livia as priestess of the deified Augustus, contemplating the bust of Augustus, after 14 C.E. | 155 | |
| 86 | Coin, sestertius, of Agrippina I, 37–38 C.E. | 157 | |
| 87 | Gemma Claudia, ca. 50 C.E. | 159 | |
| 88 | Portrait of Julia Titi, ca. 80–81 C.E. | 163 | |
| 89 | Coin, billon tetradrachm, mid–second century C.E., reverse of Hadrian depicting Sabina. | 165 | |
| 90 | Coin, bronze sestertius, ca. 161–176 C.E., obverse, depicting the younger Faustina. | 167 | |
| 91 | Coin, a bronze sestertius, ca. 161–176 C.E., reverse, depticting Felicitas and children. | 167 | |
| 92 | Frieze B of the Cancelleria Reliefs, 93–95 C.E. | 168 | |
| 93 | The Temple of Vesta and the Vestals’ house in the Roman Forum, Rome | 169 | |
| 94 | Relief of couple as military commander and priestess, mid–first century C.E. | 171 | |
| 95 | Statue of priestess, mid–second century C.E. | 173 | |
| 96 | Statuette of Venus with Priapus, mid–first century C.E. | 174 | |
| 97 | Pair of small bronze cymbals, mid–first century C.E. | 174 | |
| 98 | Painting depicting the cult of Isis from Herculaneum, first century C.E. | 175 | |
| 99 | Statue of Roman matron in the guise of Venus, late second century C.E. | 177 | |
| 100 | Terracotta votives of body parts from the sanctuary of Diana at Nemi, first century B.C.E. | 178 | |
| 101 | Funerary altar of Aelia Procula, mid–second century C.E. | 179 | |
This is a brief book on a large and increasingly unwieldy subject. In the course of its composition, I have imagined it as being perched atop a pile of scholarship, some of it quite hefty and other parts gossamer light. The book, of course, bears the imprint of the work of many fine scholars of previous generations who ventured into what was once new territory. Now the subject of Roman women seems rather more familiar, if not completely exhausted. By surveying topics that revolve around the concept and realities of Roman women, I have aimed to make these accessible to introductory students and laymen while avoiding some of the boilerplate of the genre. The juxtaposition of text and images offers a collage that may foil our impulse to match facts and pictures, a craving too often satisfied in textbooks. The images are taken seriously as sources of evidence, even when they contradict or only relate obliquely to ancient literary or historical sources. Amid the touchstones and major monuments required of such a venture, my discussions ought to suggest the depth and complexity of the issues without bringing it all to the surface. Attention is given to the ordinary and everyday aspects of life rather than to the spectacular and cinematic scenery of ancient Rome. No book is written without a point of view, and my preferences for the plebeian and anticlassical are apparent throughout.
A number of institutions have supported my work along the way. Research begun during a Howard Foundation fellowship from Brown University wound up in several chapters. I completed a draft of the book while on a sabbatical supported by the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities, which provided stretches of time for reading and thinking. A leave from Vassar College and the Lucy Shoe Meritt Residency in Ancient Studies at the American Academy in Rome brought me back to the city and its many pleasures. A summer seminar offered by the National Endowment for the Humanities on Roman Egypt at Columbia University proved to be important, and I thank Roger Bagnall for introducing me to this area. Sheila Dillon and Sharon James set their accomplished students on me during a stimulating visit to their seminar on women in antiquity at Duke University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
I am grateful for my editor at Cambridge University Press, Beatrice Rehl, who offered me the opportunity to write this book and who provided clear-eyed advice along the way. She had the foresight to bring on Lisa Swyers as a photo editor whose patience and perseverance are boundless. I thank Hans Rupprecht Goette for his advice and his digital photo archives that he made available to us. Steve Vinson generously took time away from his research leave to photograph mummy portraits in the Cairo Museum. Naomi J. Norman offered slides of the reliefs from La Marsa in the Carthage Museum. Judith Barringer, Eleanor Winsor Leach, Christine Kondoleon, and Bettina Bergmann also pointed us in the right direction for the acquisition of photos.
I also thank the anonymous reader for the Press for improving the manuscript in many small but significant ways. Jacqueline Musacchio of Vassar College sharpened the prose of a preliminary chapter and asked important questions. Harriet Flower read part of the manuscript and advised on matters of history and religion. Eleanor Winsor Leach read a couple of chapters and prodded me to return to some literary passages. Barbara Kellum fielded questions on slavery, and Matthew Roller did likewise on an inscription. Sinclair Bell provided bibliographic references and tracked books down in European libraries. Judith Barringer, as always, provided moral support and counsel on the big picture. I have tried to incorporate all of their wise suggestions but, of course, any remaining errors, distortions, or omissions are all my own doing.
Vassar College was instrumental in providing student research assistants who have made the work a pleasure. The Ford Foundation supported Christine Wegner’s summer research that started the project, and Christine may have gotten more out of this than we both realized. Rachel Kozinn served admirably, and Courtney Biggs provided exemplary assistance in seeing the book through to the end with a sense of humor. Kathryn Madden not only assisted in fact-checking, but produced the index on a tight schedule. I thank them for their hard work and attention to detail. Thomas Hill of Vassar's Art Library supplied a steady stream of cappuccino and bibliographic assistance. Ellic Davies and Liliana Aguis also helped out in the library and office. I was not alone in this endeavor – neither at the office nor at home, where my husband and daughter distracted me in ways that allowed my mind to wander and then come back, refreshed.
Poughkeepsie
January 2005
Italy in the third–second centuries B.C.
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The Roman Empire in the late second century C.E.
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