Note: Locators for figures and tables appear in italics.
agriculture 216–218
Akha people (Thailand), feasting rituals 69–70
Anban site 88–93, 209
F3 89
ancestral cults 157, 236, 248
emergence 129, 135
gravesite rituals 119–120, 131, 144–146, 147–148
temples 48, 154
See also sacrificial offerings
Andersson, J. G. 5, 91
animals
domestication 25, 58–59, 218
as sacrificial offerings 53, 65, 94, 106
wild 59
See also faunal remains
Anyang site 6, 48, 119
archaeology
based on material remains and historical records 9–10, 13–16, 105, 237
evolutionary approaches 10, 11–13
Morgan-Engels theory 5, 10–11, 79, 117
neo-evolutionary model 11, 191
as national history
legends and 223, 224, 235
nationalism and 8–9, 11
quxi leixing model 7–8, 9, 12
Zhongyuan-centered tradition 5–8
architecture
building forms 113–114, 190
cave dwellings 95
compound-like house clusters 113
corridors 106, 113
drainage channels 103
ground-level structures 85
longhouses 85
monumental structures 115–116
non-residences 79, 83–85
palace-like buildings 106, 110
palace / temple complexes 230–232
pile-dwellings 75
public buildings 113, 244
semi-subterranean structures 74–75
structure categories 79
Dadiwan site 86
Erlitou culture 230–232
Guchengzhai site 106
Longshan culture 43, 95–96
Lutaigang site, Structure I 248–249, 249
Peiligang culture 74–75
Taosi sites 110
Yangshao culture 79, 83
Armeniaca culgaris 55
arrowheads 63, 64
See also projectile points
artifacts 260
comparison of Dagudui quarry and Taosi 112
correlations between 41
Huanglianshu site, F11 38
Jiangzhai site, F17 37
Kangjia site 57, 64–67
non-native 94
Yinjiacheng site 39, 45
Yuchisi site
F33 41
F37 39
See also ritual objects; specific artifacts
ascribed social status 137, 144, 153, 250
Baijia site 208
faunal remains 60, 61, 61
Bancun site, burials 46–48
Banpo site 46
barbarians 207
bears 68
Beixin culture 25–27, 193
belief systems 82–83, 157, 236
fertility cults 248–249
natural deities 248–249
ocean-spirit worship 201
See also ancestral cults; rituals
Bencao Gangmu (Li) 63
Bianxianwang site 204
Blake, M. 246, 251
Bohai Bay 29
Bohlin, B. 5
bone artifacts
awls 131, 132
flutes 122, 124, 126
tools 57, 102
See also oracle bones
bronze
artifacts 1, 105, 207
metallurgy 224, 233–234, 245
production sites 108, 230
ritual objects 111, 231–232, 234, 235, 245
Bronze Age 226
Brumfiel, E. M. 231
Bubalus arnee 68
Bubalus wansjocki 59, 60
buffalo 68
burial locations
ash pits 46, 47
cemeteries 46, 75, 110, 118, 132, 133
walls, floors, and foundations 46, 47, 53, 55–57
See also mortuary practices
burial patterns
cross-cultural comparison 152
Dawenkou culture 65, 138–143, 155
Longshan culture 135–138, 143–146, 155
Majiayao culture 146–148
Miaodigou phase 132–133
Neolithic period
early 126
middle 130–135
late 135–138
Peiligang culture 126–130
Qijia culture 148–151
social stratification and 110, 120–125, 138–143, 151–155
Upper Xiajiadian culture 153
Yangshao culture 46, 47, 130–135
Yellow River region
lower 138–146
upper 146–151
See also mortuary practices
burials
Bancun site 46–48
Banpo site 46
Chengzi site 143, 143, 144, 145, 146
Dahecun site 46
Dawenkou culture 139
Dianjuntai site 46
Erlitou culture 230
Hongshanmiao site 132
Hougang sites 46
Huangniangniangtai site 148, 149, 150, 151, 151
Jiahu site 65, 126, 127, 128, 128, 155
Kangjia site 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62
Lingjiatan site 65–66, 67
Longgangsi site 130, 131
Miaodigou site 46
mummies 92
Pingliangtai site 104
research approaches 117–119
Shijia site 133, 133, 135
Shuiquan site 128, 129, 130
statistical analysis 125
Taosi sites 110, 135, 136, 137, 138
Wangchenggang site 47, 47
Wangyoufang site 47
Xiajincun site 137
Xishuipo site 155
Xizhufeng site 204
Yangshan site 146, 147, 155
Yuchisi site 99, 141, 142
See also grave goods; mortuary practices
burial sizes 120
grave goods and 140, 142, 144, 147, 264, 266
Capra hircus 59
Carneiro, R. L. 170, 246
catfish 68
cemeteries 46, 75, 110, 118, 132, 133
Center for the Study of Civilization 9
Central Asia, contacts with 91–93
central places 189, 190, 193, 235, 267, 269, 270, 272
Central Plains lakes 22
ceramic artifacts 98–99
burial urns 82
chao scoops 87, 88–91
clay masks 88
dakouweng large-orifice urns 43, 98
ding cauldrons 43, 45, 87, 203
egg-shell goblets 108, 120, 122, 156, 184
figurines 88, 90, 92
as grave goods 120
guan pots 43, 87
inscriptions on 203, 204
ritual objects 82, 83, 203
vessels for kindling 51
zeng steamers 43, 45
ceramic assemblages 42–46, 218
correlation with tools and house sizes 41
Dadiwan site 87, 87
ceramic production 78, 98, 101
ceramic types
black pottery 1–2, 6
Dongxiafeng variant 226
Erlitou variant 226, 235
Haojiatai 182
Keshengzhuang variant 216
Longshan culture 235
in Shandong 207
Xinzhai phase 226
Yangshao painted pottery 2, 91
Chalcolithic period, terracotta figurines 91–92
Chang, K. C. 2, 99, 238
Chardin, P. T. de. 5
Chen, X. 233
Chengzi site 143, 143, 144, 145, 146
burial sizes and grave goods 266
Chengziyai site 5, 6, 203
chickens 59
chiefdoms 11, 116
characteristics 165, 189
complex and integrated 241
definition 13–14, 115
diminished 221
emergence 189, 191
models of 242
Chinemys reevesii 64, 66–67
Chinemys spp. 66–67
chronology of archaeological cultures 4, 16
cinnabar 84–85
Cishan culture 25
civilization 12
Clark, J. E. 246, 251
Clarke, M. J. 69
climate, See environment
climatic determinism 32
coefficient of determination (R2) 125
coefficient of variation (CV) 125
Cohen, D. 207
competition
among factions 100
among households 71, 85, 99, 114
inter-polity 113, 205
See also warfare
complex societies, economic systems 247
conflict
inter-group 63–64, 72, 94, 110, 115, 188, 229
inter-polity 190, 246
Longshan culture and 1, 30
cooperation
intra- and inter-community 113
copper 1, 104, 109, 184, 224, 233
bells 111
corporate strategy 249–251
correlation coefficient (R) 125
corridors 106, 113
Costin, C. L. 114
cowries 234
craft production
centers 105, 178
control of 244–245
social organization and 104, 114–115
specialization 73, 81, 105, 199, 201, 231
See also prestige goods; ritual objects
craft-production hypothesis 40
crucibles 108
cultural transformations correlated to environment changes 22–23, 27–32, 93
marine transgressions 197–198
culture, definition 2
CV (coefficient of variation) 125
Dadiwan site 86–88
ceramic assemblage 87, 87
F405 86
F901 86, 86
Dagudui quarry 109, 111
artifacts 112
Dahecun site 39, 46
Dantu site 93, 199
data sources 16
settlement data 161–162, 194, 273, 274
Dawenkou culture 2, 16, 35–36, 38, 43, 193
burial patterns 65, 138–143, 155
burials 139
early 25–27
grave goods 140
burial sizes and 265
settlement patterns 203
in Shandong 199
sites 96–100, 185, 186, 187–188
deer
Pere David’s deer 31
sika deer 55, 59, 60, 68
tusks as grave goods 99
water deer 53
deities, natural 248–249
delegated decision making 245
designs, anthropomorphic 83
Dianjuntai site 46
diet 61–62
health and 93
diguo shidai (the empire period) 13
Dinggong site 203
divination methods 67
Turtle-Trigrams 65
See also oracle bones
dogs 59, 68
as sacrificial offerings 106
domestication
of animals 25, 58, 218
of plants 25
Donglongshan site 233
Dongyi culture 207
Doubters of Antiquity 7
drainage channels 103
drums 122–123
alligator 122, 136
pottery 123, 124, 147, 151
Dual-Processual leadership strategies 249–251
duoyuan yiti (single entity with multiple components) 8
Earle, T. K. 13, 14, 15, 231
East Asian monsoon, See monsoon, East Asian
East China Sea 28
economic systems
in complex societies 247
production on a household-community basis 113
egalitarian societies 35, 113
mortuary practices 133
Peiligang culture 78, 128
transition to stratified societies 13, 113, 146, 151, 153–155
Yangshao culture 42, 83, 131
Eight Trigrams 65, 66
Elaphurus davidianus 31
elephants 30
Elephus maximus 30
elites
emergence 114, 156–157
mortuary segregation 151–155, 230, 242–244
production of prestige goods 157
residential segregation 108, 110, 113–114, 242
environment 19
changes correlated to cultural transformations 22–23, 27–32, 93, 175, 186, 216–218
marine transgressions 193, 197–198
environmental determinism 32
ercengtai ledges 121, 138, 141, 143
Erlitou culture 225
burials 230
origins 16, 30–31, 226–229
palace / temple complexes 230, 231, 232
rank-size distribution 226, 228
regional centers 234
settlement hierarchy 226, 228, 232, 235
sites 219, 227
territorial expansion 233–235
transition from Longshan culture 235–236, 246
urban core area 229, 230, 232
world system 236
Xia dynasty and 223, 226
See also Yiluo River region
erosion 20, 30, 218
exchange, See trade
families
extended 53
natal, re-burial with 133, 135
nuclear 53
family-size hypothesis 40
faunal remains
Baijia site 60, 61, 61
Jiangzhai site 61, 61
Kangjia site 51, 57–58, 58, 62, 261
distribution 69
domesticated animals 58–59
ratio of domestic:wild animals 60, 61–63, 261
wild animals 59
feasting hypothesis 40–46
feasting rituals
Akha people (Thailand) 69–70
Erlitou 236
Kangjia site 53, 68–70, 71, 244–245
Fei Xiaotong 8
Fengcheng-Nanshi site 111, 173
Fengyou site 215
fertility cults 248–249
Five Emperors period 9–10, 223
floods 30, 197–198, 216
erosion and 208, 218
protection from 115, 207
See also Great Flood; specific rivers
foxes 68
Fung, C. 142
Fu Sinian 5, 6, 192
Gao, Q. 133
Gaositou site 88
gender
division of labor and 36, 151
mortuary treatment and 133–135, 141, 144, 151, 157
tool usage and 35, 36, 39, 43
See also status, social
geographic settings 20–22
emergence of states and 246–247
Geoksyur 92
goats, See sheep/goats
Gongyi region sites 179
grave goods
burial sizes and 140, 142, 144, 147, 264, 266
ceramic artifacts
Dawenkou culture 140
deer tusks 99
gender-related use of tools and 35–36
Huangniangniangtai site 151, 266
jade artifacts 99, 136, 148
lack of 110
Lingjiatan site 66
Longgangsi site
pigs 99, 123
prestige goods 120, 141, 143
stone tools 78
See also burials; mortuary practices
Great Flood 31
ground stone implements 78, 85
gucheng guguo guwenhua shidai (the period of archaic towns, archaic states, and archaic culture) 11
Guchengzhai site 106, 107, 108, 113, 184
guguo – fangguo – diguo (archaic state – regional state – empire) 12
guguo shidai (the archaic state period) 13
hairpins 91, 92
Haizang Park site 150–151
Hancheng sites 214
Hangzhou Bay 2
Haojiatai site 185
hares 60, 63
headgear 88–89, 90, 92
health 133
diet and 93
Henan sites 163, 164, 165, 166
Longshan culture 169, 178, 180, 182, 183, 184
hereditary social status, See ascribed social status
hierarchies
administrative 160, 239, 240
emergence 239
See also segregation; settlement hierarchies; social stratification
historical records 31, 64, 192
archaeology based on 9–10, 13–16, 105, 237
Holocene environment 22, 23, 24, 25–26, 27
Homo erectus 6
Hongshanmiao site 131, 132, 133
Hougang sites 46, 181
Houli culture 25, 193, 202
households
as basic social units 15, 33–34, 101
competition among 71, 85, 99, 114
general model 34
material possessions 39–40
rituals within 102
segmentation of activities 35–39
house sizes, correlation with ceramic assemblages and tools 41
Huai river 20
Huang-Huai Plains 182–184
Huanglianshu site 39
F11 36–37, 38
Huangniangniangtai site 148, 149, 150, 151, 151
grave goods 266
Huan River valley 181
Huizui site, tool assemblages 263
Hulu River valley 216, 217, 218
human remains 31, 44
See also burials
human sacrifices, See under sacrificial offerings
hunting 63–64, 70
Hutouliang site 24
Huxizhuang site 215
hypotheses
craft-production hypothesis 40
family-size hypothesis 40
feasting hypothesis 40–46
Ikawa-Smith, F. 5
inequality 102, 114–115, 130
inscriptions 203, 204
See also oracle bones
instruments, musical 122
interaction, regional 71–72
jade artifacts
bi disks 121, 148–150
cong tubes 121, 136, 184
distribution 123
as grave goods 99, 120, 136, 148–151
as prestige goods 72, 108
turtle shells 65–66, 66, 67
yazhang tablets 121
Jiacun site 213
Jiahu site 35, 75, 76, 77
burials 65, 126, 127, 128, 128, 155
burial sizes and grave goods 264
settlement patterns 75–78, 262
tools associated with burials 256
Jiangxicun site 88
Jiangzhai site 39–40, 42, 79, 80, 82
F17 36, 37
F47 81
faunal remains 61, 61
sex ratios by age groups 134
tools associated with burials 259
Jiaochangpu site 205
Jiaolai plains 193
Jing River sites 214
Jingyanggang site 205–206
Ji River 27, 254
Johnson, G. A. 161
Kangjia site
architecture
house foundations 51–53
house plans 52
artifacts 57, 64–67
burials 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 62
environment and ecology 60–61
excavations 49, 50
faunal remains 51, 57–58, 58, 62, 261
distribution 69
domesticated animals 58–59
ratio of domestic:wild animals 60, 61–63, 261
wild animals 59
feasting rituals 53, 68–70, 71, 244–245
human sacrifices 57, 63, 102
hunting 63–64, 70
oracle bones 54, 67
overview 33, 48, 70–71
painted floor 51, 52, 102
pits 53
H69 53
H71 53, 57, 59, 66, 68–69
H74 56
H77 57
H79 57, 63, 64
settlement patterns 100–103, 213
sketch map 50
tool assemblages 263
Kara-Depe 92
Kent’s model 40, 48–51
Keshengzhuang site 47, 48
kilns 75, 81, 101, 104, 111
kin groups
definition 119
stratified 137, 141–143
kinship organization
monolineal 99
patrilocal 135
sequential development 11
labor
communal 112
gendered division of 36, 151
lacquer ware 57
Lajia site 31
lakes 20, 22, 25
language
inscribed artifacts 203
writing systems 1, 207, 224
Laoguantai culture 25, 49, 208, 209
lead 109
leadership strategies 249–251
Lee, Y. K. 79, 133
legends, national history and 223, 224, 235
Liang, S. 2
Liangchangzhen sites 108–109, 199, 201
Liangzhu culture 2
Licent, E. 5
Licheng, Shandong 1
Li Chi 5–6, 7
Ligu site 237
lime plaster 95, 102
Li Mountains 57, 60
Linfen basin 170–176
Lingjiatan site 65–66, 67
grave goods 66
Linyi region sites 196
Li Shizhen, Bencao Gangmu 63
lithic materials 78, 82, 99, 108
Li Mountains sources 57
Mount Dagudui quarry 111
Songshan Mountains limestone 105
Liu, L. 233
log-normal line 160
Longgangsi site 35, 36
burials 130, 130, 131, 131
grave goods 132
burial sizes and 265
tools associated with burials 257
Longshan culture
architecture 43, 95–96
arrowheads 64
burial patterns 135–138, 143–146, 155
ceramic types 235
conflict and 1, 30
Gongyi region
sites 179
Henan 178–184
sites 169, 180, 183
overview 1–5, 16, 27
rank-size distribution 197, 213
comparisons 175
convex 173, 180, 183
log-normal 173
primate 173
regions 3, 254
settlement hierarchies 195, 212
comparisons 177
three-tiered 177, 180, 182, 183, 210
two-tiered 181, 203, 205
settlement patterns 168
circumscribed clusters 170–176
less circumscribed clusters 178–184, 185–188
semi-circumscribed clusters 176–178
Shaanxi 49, 192–193, 209–214
sites 49
Shandong 192–193, 194–207
sites 196, 200, 202, 206
Shanxi
sites 169
Taosi (See also Taosi site) 190
rank-size distribution, primate 188–189
settlement hierarchies, three-tiered 173, 188
tool usage 35–36
transition to Erlitou culture 235–236, 246
Wei River valley
sites 211
Yiluo valley
sites 179
Longshanoid horizon 2
definition 3
Lubao site 182
Lutaigang site, Structure I 248–249, 249
magicians 91
Majiayao culture 146–148, 224
marble artifacts 150
marine transgressions
correlated to cultural transformations 193, 197–198
sites and 198
marriage, pairing 79
matrilineal social organization 79
Mengzhuang site 181–182, 237
metallurgy 111, 184, 224, 233–234, 245
metals, earliest remains of 104
methodology, See research approaches
Miaodigou phase 2, 132–133, 165
See also Yangshao culture
Miaodigou site 46
migration 174–175, 185, 201, 216–218
minimum number of individuals (MNI) 51
moats 96
Monetaian moneta 234
Monetaria annulus 234
monolineal kinship organization 99
monsoon, East Asian 23–24, 24, 25, 27
monumental structures, social organization and 115–116
Morgan-Engels theory of cultural evolution 5, 10–11, 79, 117
mortuary practices
burial in urns 82, 132
in egalitarian societies 133
gender and 133, 141, 144, 151, 157
re-burial with natal families 133, 135
segregation of elites 151–155, 230, 242–244
See also burial locations; burial patterns; burials; feasting rituals; grave goods
mountain apricot 55
Nanzhuangtou site 24
national history
legends and 223, 224, 235
nationalism and 8–9, 11
quxi leixing model 7–8, 9, 12
Zhongyuan-centered tradition 5–8
nationalism, national history and 8–9, 11
neo-evolutionary model of archaeology 11, 191
Neolithic period
initial 24
early 25
middle 25–27
late 27
network strategies 249–251
numbers of identified specimens (NISP) 51
ocean-spirit worship 201
oracle bones 6, 47, 48, 53, 63, 254
Kangjia site 54, 67
Ordos sites 5
Ovis shangi 59
paintings on floors 51, 52, 102
paleovegetation 26
Panlongcheng site 233
Pan Qifeng 174
patrilocal kinship organization 135
Pearson, R. 35
peer-polity interaction model 246–247
Peiligang culture 16, 25, 35–36
architecture 74–75
burial patterns 126–130
rank-size distribution, convex 162
settlement patterns 162
social organization and 74–78
sites 163
pigs 58, 61
as grave goods 99, 123–125
Pingliangtai site 103, 103, 104, 185
political orientations
group 247, 249, 251
individual 247, 249
pollen 23, 27
population
decline 31, 201, 207, 209–214, 219
estimation 160, 160, 191, 240, 240
growth 30, 174, 180, 194, 208
mobility 221
power
religious 155–157
ritual 248–249
prestige goods 184, 224
as grave goods 120–125, 141, 143
production 108, 157, 236
wealth finance economic system and 247, 250
See also ritual objects; specific artifacts
projectile points 233
See also arrowheads
Proto-Shang culture 225, 236–238
Qijia culture 31, 148–151
Qinghai, Lake 25
Qi River valley sites 215
“Qiushuipian” 31
Qujialing culture 16, 36, 185, 187–188
sites 186
quxi leixing model of national history 7–8, 9, 12
R2 (coefficient of determination) 125
raccoon dogs 60, 63
radiocarbon dates 16, 22–23
ranking 15
rank-size distribution 160–161, 241
convex 164, 188
Erlitou 228
Longshan culture 173, 180, 183
Peiligang culture 162
in Shaanxi 210, 213, 214
in Shandong 196, 203, 205
Yangshao culture 165
log-normal
Longshan culture 173
in Shandong 199
Longshan culture 197, 213
comparisons 175
primate
Erlitou 226
Longshan culture 173
Longshan culture, Taosi phase 188
Rank-Size Rule 160
rank societies 116
R (correlation coefficient) 125
Renfrew, C. 189, 246
research approaches
burials 117–119
social complexity
analysis of 159, 160, 162, 169–170, 192–193, 225
approaches to 239
further questions 251–253
residential segregation, See segregation, residential
resources
control of 114–115, 244–245
procurement 232, 233–234
ritual objects 72, 124
controlling production of 151, 245
religious power and 155–157
trade 67, 122, 136, 156
trade of 72
See also craft production; prestige goods; specific artifacts
ritual practitioners, See shamans
rituals 129
within households 34, 102
See also ancestral cults; belief systems; feasting rituals; sacrificial offerings
Rizhao region 199–201, 220
sites 200
sacrificial offerings
ancestral cults gravesite rituals 119–120, 131, 144–146, 147–148
animals 53, 65, 94, 106
humans 46–48, 204, 205–207
Kangjia site 57, 63, 102
Qijia culture 148
Shang dynasty 46, 48
Taosi sites 110
Wangchenggang site 47, 105
Xishan site 94
See also suttee
Sahlins, M. 14
salt 233
Sanlihe site 35, 258
sea level, fluctuation in 29, 29, 31, 202
sedentism 24–25
segmentation 34, 113, 128
segregation
mortuary 151–155, 230, 242
residential 108, 110, 113–114, 242–244
Service, E. R. 11, 13
settlement hierarchies 160, 160, 240, 240
four-tiered
Erlitou culture 226, 228, 232, 235
Longshan culture 195, 212
comparisons 177
three-tiered 239
Longshan culture 177, 180, 182, 183, 210
Longshan culture, Taosi phases 173, 188
Yangshao culture 165, 166
two-tiered
Longshan culture 181, 203, 205
Yangshao culture 166, 166
settlement nucleation 116, 174, 201, 232, 235
settlement organization
large settlements 108–111
medium settlements
with walls 103–108
without walls 96–103
settlement patterns
analysis of 15
Dawenkou culture 203–205
Hulu River valley 218
Kangjia site 100–103, 213
Longshan culture 168, 194–207
circumscribed clusters 170–176
less circumscribed clusters 178–184, 185–188
semi-circumscribed clusters 176–178
Peiligang culture 162
regional 240–242
in Shaanxi 208, 215–219
in Shandong 193–208
Yangshao culture 163–168, 208
settlement patterns and social organization 73–74, 111–114, 159–160, 188–189, 246–247
Peiligang culture 74–78
in Shaanxi 221–222
in Shandong 219–222
Yangshao culture 167, 168
early 78–83
middle 83–85
late 85–95
settlement systems
models 241
mono-centered centripetal 188, 190, 220, 241
multi-centered competing 188–189, 190, 220–221, 241–242
tributary 242
Shaanxi
Longshan culture 49, 192–193, 209
rank-size distribution, convex 210, 213, 214
settlement patterns 208, 215–219
social organization and 222
sites 49, 208, 215
shamans 71, 91, 123, 155
social status 158
Shandong
ceramic types 207
Dawenkou culture 199
Linyi region 194–198, 220–221
Longshan culture 192–193, 194–207
rank-size distribution
convex 195, 203, 205
log-normal 199
settlement patterns 193–208
social organization and 219–222
sites 196, 200, 202, 206
Yueshi culture 207–208
Shang dynasty
ancestral cults 119
human sacrifices 46, 48
hunting 70
origins (See also Proto-Shang culture) 2, 6–7
warfare 64, 237
Shanxi sites 169
sheep/goats 58–59, 60
Shelach, G. 153
shell tools 102
Shijia site
burials 133, 133, 135
sex ratios by age groups 134
Shiji (Historical Memoirs) 64, 70
shiny-leaved yellowthom 55
Shi Zhangru 48
Shuiquan site 128, 129, 130
burial sizes and grave goods 264
silk cultivation 6
Silk Road 92
Sima Qian 116
“Yin benji” 70
Sino-American Collaborative Liangcheng Archaeology Team 199, 201
sites
change of cultural distribution 217
comparison by size and number 172, 185
frequency by period and region 28
marine transgressions and 198
number 218, 235
vs. size 185
by size 180
slavery 106
social change, dynamics of 246–247
economic systems 247
emergence of states 246–247
political orientations 247, 249, 251
ritual power 248–249
social complexity
by archaeological period 243
development and decline 192–193, 209, 215, 222
emergence 48, 85, 159, 189, 249–251
from extended families to lineages 135
research approaches 159, 160, 161, 162, 169–170, 192–193, 225, 239, 251–253
segmentation - unity continuum 35
transition from egalitarian to stratified 113, 146, 151, 153
See also chiefdoms; states
social organization
by archaeological period 240
craft production and 114–115
decentralized 190
diminished 221–222, 241
matrilineal 79
monumental structures and 115–116
settlement patterns and (See settlement patterns and social organization)
See also chiefdoms; states
social stratification
burial patterns and 110, 120–125, 138–143, 151–155
Song Jian 8
Songshan Mountains 105
specialization, See under craft production
Spencer, C. S. 245
spindle whorls 105
staple finance economic system 247
states 12
definition 224–225, 245
emergence 14–15, 31, 223–225, 238, 246–247
territorial 236
status, social
ascribed 136, 143–144, 153, 250
markers 15
of men 144, 153, 242
of shamans 158
of women 135, 141, 145, 149, 242
stone artifacts 57, 78, 102, 105
as grave goods 78
production centers 108, 111, 178
yu axes 136
See also arrowheads; ground stone implements; projectile points
stratified societies 35
definition 15
legitimization 157
transition from egalitarian societies 113, 146, 151, 153–155
See also hierarchies; social stratification
Su Bingqi 7–8, 12
suttee 149
See also sacrificial offerings
Taiyi mountain system 193
Taosi site 109, 109, 111, 170, 173, 176
architecture 110
artifacts 112
burials 110, 135, 136, 137, 138
human sacrifices 110
Tenghualuo site 198
Thailand 69
Three Dynasties 8, 238
Tianwang site 203
tools
assemblages 263
associated with burials 256, 259
bone tools 57, 102
correlation with ceramic assemblages and house sizes 41
gender-specific use 35, 36, 39, 43
potter’s tools 40, 43, 45–46, 98, 101
shell tools 102
towns, See walled settlements
trade
inter-community 78, 82, 102
of ritual objects 67, 72, 122, 136, 156–157
transegalitarian societies 69, 100, 116
See also chiefdoms
transportation 201, 233
tributary settlement systems 242
Trigger, B. G. 236
turtle shells 64–67, 122, 124, 126
See also jade artifacts
Underhill, A. 64, 114, 141
Upper Xiajiadian culture 153
Wadian sites 184
walled settlements 115, 272
Bianxianwang 204
Chengziyai 203
Dantu 93, 199
Dinggong 203
Guchengzhai 107, 184
Haojiatai site 185
Hougang 181
Jiaochangpu 205
Jingyanggang 205–207
Mengzhuang 182
Pingliangtai 185
Tenghualuo 198
Tianwang 203
Wangzhuang 93, 194
Xikangliu 93, 194
Xishan 93–95, 167–168
Wallerstein, I. 236
walls 1, 112
rammed-earth 30, 93, 183, 184, 188, 190, 193, 205
Wangchenggang site 104, 104, 106, 183
burials 47, 47
human sacrifices 105
tool assemblages 263
as Yangcheng 105
wangguo shidai (the dynastic state period) 13
Wangwan Neolithic sequence 2
Wangyoufang site 47
Wangzhuang site 93, 194
warfare
inter-group conflict 63–64, 72, 94, 110, 115, 188, 229
inter-polity conflict 190, 246
Longshan culture and 1, 30
Shang dynasty 64, 237
See also competition
water buffalo 31, 59, 60
wealth finance economic system 247
Wei River valley 181, 208, 221
environment and ecology 60–61
sites 209, 210, 211, 214
world systems, Erlitou culture 236
Wright, H. T. 225, 242
writing systems 1, 224
inscribed artifacts 203 (See also oracle bones)
Wu Jinding 1, 6
wu shamans, See shamans
Xanthoceras sorbifolia bunge 55
Xia dynasty 30, 105, 225, 235, 236, 238
origins 223
Xiajincun site 137
Xiangjiagou site 199
Xiaqiyuan culture 16, 181, 225–226, 227, 236–238
Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project 9
Xikangliu site 93, 194
Xinzhai sites 184, 227, 229
Xipo site, F104 and F105 83, 84
Xishan site 93, 94, 95, 167–168
Xishuipo site 155
Xizhufeng site 204
Yangcheng, Wangchenggang site as 105
Yangshan site 146, 146, 147, 148, 151, 155
burial sizes and grave goods 266
Yangshao culture
architecture 79, 83–85
arrowheads 64
burial patterns 46, 48, 130–135
diet and health 93
overview 2, 16, 25–27
painted pottery 2, 91
phases 26, 35–36, 42, 208
rank-size distribution, convex 165
settlement hierarchies
three-tiered 165, 166
two-tiered 166, 166
settlement patterns 163–168, 208
social organization and 167, 168
settlement patterns and social organization
early 78–83
middle 83–85
late 85–95
sites 5, 165, 209
Yan Wenming 2, 8, 13, 64
Yellow River valley 21
climatic and geomorphic changes 19
course changes 20, 29–30, 31, 186–187, 218, 251
Longshan culture variants map 3
sites 74, 118, 171
topography 20–22
See also floods
Yiluo River region 176–178
Yiluo valley sites 179
“Yin benji” (Sima Qian) 70
Ying River valley 184
Yinjiacheng site 39
F204 43, 45, 46
tools associated with burials 259
Yinjiacun site 208
Yuanjunmiao site, sex ratios by age groups 134
Yuchisi site 39, 96, 97, 100
burials 99, 141, 142
burial sizes and grave goods 265
F33 43, 44
F37 38, 39
food vessel rankings 98
Yueshi culture 16, 30–31, 194, 201, 207–208
Yu the Great 105, 235
Zhao Chunqing 161
Zhaojialai site 101, 102, 215
Zhengzhou region 166–168
Zhongyuan-centered tradition of national history 5–8
Zhou dynasty 91, 219
Zhoukoudian site 5, 6
Zhuangzi 31
Zhuzu, Mount 199
Zipf, G. K. 160