adjectives
adjective stems 24
adjuncts 51, 56
nominal 51–52, 56
affixes 71
compared with clitics 71
phonological structure 71
prefixes see prefixes
suffixes see verbs/extensions
unproductive affixes:
positional -am- 111
reversive see reversive
agreement 4
anaphora 20–21, 47
case 51
demonstratives 4
insufficient for grammaticality 52
and OM 85
possessives 4
pronominal 26–27
relativized nouns 41, 44–45
uses of SM 26, 47
anaphora
and antecedents of pronominal arguments 52
and benefactive 54
and reciprocal 102
and reflexive 102, 109
and SM 20–21, 47
and OM 20–21, 22, 56
Angola, Lunda in 42
A-over-A constraint 60
applicative 5–6, 54–55, 108–109
benefactive 80
and stative 97
circumstantial 88
and causative 78, 88–89, 120–121
double-object constructions 78–81
-il- verb extension 71, 78
-el- form 78
instrumental 87
locative 87–88
and Mirror Principle 119–121
and passive 91–92
and reciprocal 119–120
and stative 101–102, 126
Swahili -i- 79
-e- form 79
in Xhosa 124
arguments 51
pronominal 53
SM and OM as 51–52
aspect, habitual see habitual aspect
associative marker 4
assymmetry 80
see Symmetry
Austin, Peter 26
Australia 51
Baker, Mark 73, 119, 122, 124, 128
Bantu language group 1, 2, 72, 73
affixes 67–68
pre-prefixes 5
suffixes 74, 85
cliticization 66
configurationality 50
morphemic and syllabic structure 14
nouns and gender classes 26
reciprocal 85
reciprocal morpheme 84
reflexive morpheme 51
stative construction 95–98
traditional interpretation of OMs
benefactive 54–55
and applicative 80
in Changana 81
and malefactive 102
and OM 54, 81
Biloa, Edmond 58
Binding 105–106, 109
see Government and Binding Theory
Bresnan, Joan 7, 18, 26, 42, 46–47
Cameroon 56
Cameroun see Cameroon
Carstens, Vicki 7
causative 16, 75–78
and applicative 78, 88–89, 120–121
double-object constructions 78–81
-ets- form 75, 76
-its- extension 71, 75, 76, 77
-ts- form 76
kwa ‘by’ 76
and Mirror Principle 120–121
and passive 91–92
-z form 76
Causative, Applicative, Reciprocal, Passive (CARP) 123–124
Changana 79, 81
Chibemba 1
Chichewa 1
agglutinative structure of verb 2
as head-initial 24
in Malawi:
central and southern dialect 12
northern-central dialect 12
in Mozambique 1
nominal system 2
phonology 2, 12
rates of use in various places 1, 2
and Setawana SM 27
in Zambia 1
Chinsenga 77
Chinyanja 1, 10
see Chichewa
Chishona 129
Chitumbuka
in northern Malawi 12
Cinyanja see Chinyanja
Chomsky, Noam 43
circumstantial see applicative/ circumstantial
clefts
copula ndi ‘by’ 46, 91
copula si 46
and discontinuity 48–50
and OM 49–50
and question formation 48
and relative constructions 45
clitics 63, 64–70, 71–72
-be ‘still’ applied to both verbs and nouns 66
clitic-doubling 82
compared with affixes 71
enclitics 65
plural imperative -ni- 33
negative see negation
-nso ‘also, too’ 66
phonological structure 71–72
proclitics 14, 16, 74
imperative ta- 36
(see under imperatives)
and tone 16, 18
complementizers
deletion:
and wh-movement 42
in English 42–43
Kuti 27, 39
complements 27–29
nominal:
relative clause commonest in NPs 27
see relative clauses
verbal 27–29
embedded clauses 27–28, 29
infinitival constructions 27–28, 29
and negative imperative marker -sa- 35
object NPs 27
compounds 117–118
concord 7, 8
Congo, Lunda in 42
conditional
-ka- 37
replacement for negative conditional 37
Condition on Extraction Domain (CED) 56, 60
Construction Grammar 127, 128
De Guzman, V. P. 79
demonstratives 65
ili ‘this’ 66
li form 66
iyi ‘these’ 65
yi form 65
iyi ‘this’ 66
yi form 66
iyo ‘those’ 65
yo form 65
izi ‘these’ 65
zi form 65
izo ‘those’ 65
zo form 65
Demuth, Katherine 27, 51
diminutives 7
direction
directional marker -dza- 28–29
and future-tense marker -dza- 28
directional marker -ka- 28
and modal -nga- 30–31
discontinuity
and head-marking 50–52
and instrumental 54
of oblique arguments in Swampy Cree 53
of NPs 48–50
genitive construction 59–61
limits 57–59
nominal adjuncts 51–59
and SM and OM 48
of theme 54–55
dislocation 21, 22
left-dislocation
and OM 21, 22
in polysynthetic languages 22
Dlayedwa Cynthia Zodwa 121–123, 124
double-object constructions 78–83, 86–87
and relativization 41
in Swahili 79
Dubinsky, Stanley 100
English
clefts 46
effect on Chichewa 11
passive 90
reciprocal 84
reflexive 107
relative clauses 17
deletion of the relative marker 18, 42–43
focus 22, 44
and cleft constructions 46
in locative inversion 94
in Swampy Cree 53
Fula 115
future
future marker -dza- 28
and directional marker -dza- 28–29
genitive 59–61
genitive marker a ‘of’ 59
Gikuyu 104
Gitonga 79
Givón, Talmy 70, 71, 72, 73
government 56
Government and Binding Theory 84
Guthrie, Malcolm 75, 84, 110
habitual aspect marker -ma- 29
Hale, Ken 50, 73
Hausa 126
head-marking 50–52
Head Movement Constraint 73
Hoffman, Mika 73
Huang, Cheng-Teh James 56
Hyman, Larry 121–123
imperative verbs 33–36
negative 34
negative imperative -sa- 35
polite imperative 31
proclitic ta- 36
and sequential marker ta- 36
and subjunctive 36
and SM 35
and subjunctive 34–35
infinitive verbs 29
instrumental 54
see applicative/ instrumental
interrogatives see question formation
Italian 100
Jelinek, Eloise 26, 52, 53, 56, 60
referential linking proposal 60
Johnson, Mark 27, 51
-kada- see -kana-
-kana- ‘would have’ 32–33
and -ngo- 33
Kenya 99
Kikamba in 99
Keyser, Jay 73
Kichaga 79, 82, 87, 90
Kichagga see Kichaga
Kihaya 21, 107
Ki-Haya see Kihaya
Kikamba 99
non-agentive 99
passive 99
stative 99
Kikuyu 82
nominal argument and OM 21
Kinande
differences between SM and OM 47–48
left dislocation and OM 21, 22
reduplication 113
Kinyalolo, Kasangati 84
Kinyarwanda 79
Kirundi 21, 27
Kiswahili see Swahili
Kongo 84
Kula, Nancy Chongo 74
Kwa languages of West Africa 70
Lasnik, Howard 43
Left Branch Condition 60
level-ordered morphology 73
Lexical Functional Grammar 117
Coherence Condition 52
and movement 57
Lexical Phonology 72, 73
Lexical Syntax 73, 90
locality 20
locative 5, 7, 8
and applicative 87–88
see applicative/locative
inversion:
and focus 94
and passive 93–94
and SM 26
and transitive verbs 26
Luganda 9, 68
Lunda 42, 111
relative clauses 42
tone 42
Makua 26
Malawi 1
Chichewa Board 1, 12
national language policy 1
malefactive 55
applicative 102
and benefactive 102
and Hausa unaccusative 126
and OM 101
Matsinhe, Sozinho 104
Mchombo, Sam 7, 18, 42, 46–47
Mirror Principle 119–121, 122, 124
in Xhosa 121
Mohawk 22, 73
modal verbs 30–31
-ba- ‘continuing to do something’ 31–32
and directional elements -ka- and -dza- 30
-nga- ‘can/may’ 30–31
and negation 35–36
and polite imperative 31
-ngo- ‘just’ 30, 35
complementary with subjunctive 35
and -kana- and -sana- 33
-zi- ‘must/should’ 31
mood, subjunctive see subjunctive mood
morphemic ordering
as fixed 7
hierarchic 127–129
Mirror Principle see Mirror Principle
in verbs 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 63–64, 118–122, 124–130
post-SM position 37
morphology 73
affixes see affixes
-an- ‘recip’ 64
-da- past-tense marker 64
-its- ‘caus’ 64
ordering see morphemic ordering
prefixes see prefixes
suffixes see suffixes
u- subject marker 64
move-ɑ rule-schema 53
movement 56
see wh-movement
Mozambique 1
Chinyanja in 1
Chinyanja in Niassa province 1, 10
Chinyanja in Tete province 1
Makua in northern 26
Tsonga in 104
Mtenje, Al 13, 15, 16, 18, 68–69, 71
Myers, Scott 7
Ndebele 1
negation
and conditional 37
embedded-clause negative marker -sa- 29
matrix-clause negative marker -si- 29
and modal -nga- 35–36
negative imperative osa- 34
negative imperative -sa- 35
and SM 35
Niger-Kordofanian language family 1
nominalization 113–116
manner nominalization 115–116
-idwe suffix 115
-edwe form 115
ka- prefix 115
-ma form 115
passive morphology 116–117
non-configurationality 50
noun classification 2–6
agreement markers 4
animates 4
bi-morphemic structure 3
class markers 4
classes one and two 4
class four 65
class five 66
class seven 47
class nine 66
class ten 65
Infinitives 5–6
inanimates 4
Locatives 5
pre-prefixes 5
and relativization 40
noun phrases (NPs) 24–27
post-verbal 26
objects 26, 55–56
object marker (OM) 19–20, 23, 46–48, 60–61
agreement insufficient for grammaticality 52
as agreement marker 85
as argument 51–52
and anaphora 20–21, 22, 23
and beneficiary 81
necessary in genitive construction 60
and NP discontinuity 48, 49–50
position 34
and post-verbal NPs 26
as pronoun 20–22, 42, 44
and relativization 41, 44
in question formation 46
second-person OM -ku- 33–34
second-person plural/formal OM -ni 34
and SM 23, 25
and tone 21, 22, 42
and Topic 21, 51
oblique 53, 91
in Kikamba 99
see passive
Optimality Theory 123
orthography 10, 11, 12
passive 81–82, 90, 91–92
and applicative 91–92, 126
and causative 91–92
copula ndi ‘by’ 46, 91
-idw- extension 71, 81, 91
-edw- form 91
impersonal use
in Xhosa 95
lack in Chichewa
and intransitive verbs 91
in Kikamba 99
and nominalization
and reciprocal 83–84
and stative 96–97, 98–100, 125–126
and transitive verbs 94
in Xhosa 121
φ-features
and anaphora 52
and object marker 19, 60–61
and subject marker 19
phonetics, consonant system 9–12
phonology 2
changes in Malawian 12
final vowel 14
minimality condition
and imperative 33
reduplication see reduplication
syllable structure 63, 68–69, 71–72
tone see tone
vowel harmony see vowel harmony
Pollock, Jean-Yves 53
polysynthetic languages
dislocation 22
pronominal arguments 26
possessive 8
possessor raising constructions see raising
predicate raising 73
prefixes 6–8
cliticized object prefixes in Swahili 104
Double prefixation and adjective stems 24
Inflectional nature 114–115
Pre-prefixes 5
Principles and Parameters Theory 7, 52–53, 70, 72
proclitics see under clitics
pronouns
and object marker 20–22, 26
pronominal incorporation 20–22
resumptive 58–59
second-person OM -ku- 33–34
second-person plural/formal OM -ni 34
and subject marker 20–21, 26–27
question formation
and cleft constructions 48
question words
chiyani ‘what’ 46
ndani ‘who’ 47–48
and relative clauses 45–46
raising, of possessors 55–56
reciprocal 83–85, 102–103, 106–110
-an- extension 12, 71, 83, 84, 102, 104
and applicative 119–120
causative 16
in English 84
and Mirror Principle 119–120
and nominalization 116
and OM 107
and passive 83–84
as R-expression 84
and reflexive 102, 116
restrictions 108
and theory of bound anaphora 102
in Xhosa 121
reduplication 70, 71, 112–113
reflexive 102, 103–106
anaphora 109
Bantu reflexive morpheme 51
and binding 109
-dzi- morpheme 103, 105
-ji- Swahili morpheme 103
and nominalization 116
and reciprocal 102, 116
ti- prefix 104, 105
and theory of bound anaphora 102
-zi- Xhosa morpheme 103
relative clauses 17–18, 39
complementizer -mene- 17, 40, 42, 48
combined with locative mu 108–109
and cleft construction 46, 48
deletion 43, 58
variants 40
and discontinuity 57–59
and double-object constructions 41
English complementizer deletion 42–43
and question formation 45–46
suffix -O 44–45
and tone 18, 42, 43, 58
And wh-movement 40, 41, 44
reversive 110–111
suffix -ul- 110–111
archaic use as ‘undoing’ 110–111
Reinholtz, Charlotte 53, 56
Ross, John Robert 60
Runyambo 82
-sana- ‘before’ 32–33
and -ngo- 33
Sesotho 128
Setawana
and Chichewa SM 27
SM and OM 27
SM as SUBJ in 51
Shona 1
prefixes 6
Simango, Silvester Ron 100
Siswati 79, 80
South Africa, Tsonga in 104
split morphology hypothesis 72
stative 95
applicatives 101–102
-ik- extension 71, 95
-ek- form 95
-k- form 95
in Kikamba 99
limits 100–102
nomenclature 95
and passive 96–97, 98–100, 125–126
restrictions 97
unaccusatives 100–101, 102
in Hausa 126
unergatives 100
stress 14–15
in Swahili 15
subjects 26, 51
subject marker (SM) 19, 23–26, 27, 46–48
and anaphora 20–21
as argument 51–52
and imperative 35
and negative imperative 35
and NP discontinuity 48
and OM 23, 24, 26–27
as pronoun 20–22
as SUBJ 51
as Topic marker 25–26
u- SM 64
uses of 26
subjunctive mood 28
complementary with modal -ngo- 35
and imperative 34–35
proclitic -ta- 36
and modal -ba- 31
and modal -nga- 30
and modal -zi- 31
and negation 29
and negative imperative -sa- 35
polite imperative see imperative
and -sana- 32
suffixes 74, 75
Swahili 103
as asymmetric 54
cliticized object prefixes 104
double-object constructions 79
OM in 85
SM 26
stress 15
Swampy Cree 53–54
symmetry 54, 79–82, 87, 109
Tanzania, Makua in southern 26
tense
present tense
and modal -ba- 31–32
tense markers
future-tense marker -dza- 28
Past-tense marker -da- 64
and SM 30
theme
discontinuity 54–55
frames 127
syntactic order 54–55
thematic roles 51
theta-role suppression 105
tone 2, 15–18
and anaphora 22
in Lunda 42
and OM 21, 22, 42
and proclitics 16
and relative clauses 18, 42, 43, 48, 58
retraction 22–23
topic 20, 22, 51
and cleft constructions 46
and OM 21, 51
and relative pronoun 44
and SM 25–26, 47
Transformational Grammar 72
Tsonga 102, 104, 105
Tuki 56, 58
Uganda 9
verbal extensions 67–68
as verbs 70–72
verb root 63–64
verb stem 63–78, 112
creation 73
macrostem 113
site of reduplication 71, 112–113
site of vowel harmony 68, 112
suprastem see verbs/macrostem
uniqueness 112–113
verbs
extensions 71
applicative see applicative
causative see causative
passive see passive
reciprocal see reciprocal
stative see stative
imperative see imperative verbs
intransitive:
and passive morpheme 91
and stative
unaccusative 100–101
unergative 100
modal see modal verbs
morphemic ordering see morphemic ordering in verbs
nominal derivation see nominal derivation
phonological structure 71–72
passive see passive
structure 63–64
suffixes see verbs / extensions
tense see tense
transitive:
and stative 96
and reciprocal 84, 86–87
and locative inversion 26, 94
vowel harmony 2, 14, 68, 70
wh-extraction 86–87
wh-movement
and Focus 46, 53
and relative clauses 40, 41, 44
and COMP deletion 42
obviated by incorporated object argument 45
and resumptive pronouns 58
unnecessary 56, 57
word order 19–20, 50, 54
Xhosa 103, 111
applicative 124
and CARP 123
impersonal 95
Mirror Principle in 121
noun structure 5
reciprocal 121
passive 121
morpheme ordering 125
Zambia 1
Chinyanja in 1, 12
ethnic groups in 1
Lunda in 42
Zimbabwe
Chichewa in 1
Shona in 6
Zulu 5