Page numbers in italic refer to figures, those in bold refer to boxes
Abrahams, E., 251
abscisic acid, 443–4, 448
absolute zero, 40, 88
absorption, 234, 235
interstitials, 125
radiation, 253
absorption bands, 254
Acanthostega spp. (fossil tetrapods), 417, 418, 425–6
acceleration, 4, 55
and gravity, 21
and mass, 27
acceptor ions, 284
acceptors, 227, 288
electron, 147
accidental discoveries, 15–17
Acetabularia spp. (seaweed), 409
acetaldehyde, 272
acetic acid, 145–6, 273, 383–4
acetic anhydride, 309
acetone, 267, 272
structural formula, 266
acetylcholine, 466, 472–3, 489
acetylcholine receptors, 472–3
acetylcholinesterase, 473, 505
acetyl-CoA, 378, 384
acetylene, 270
structural formula, 265
acetylenes, 265
N-acetylglucosamine (NAG), 349, 355
N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM), 349, 355
Achaemenian art, 202
acid–base neutralization, 145
acid–base reactions, 139
acidic rocks, 174–5
acidity, measures, 171
acids, 143–4
importance of, 144
organic, 266, 267, 272
strong, 144
weak, 144
see also amino acids; fatty acids; nucleic acids
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 359
acrasin, 406
acridines, 351
actin, 372, 414, 457, 461–4
action, 9
action potentials, 467–8, 469
action spectra, 449, 450
activated amino acids, 349
activated schemata, 528–9, 538–9
activation energy, 88
active transport, 447, 470
actomyosin, 461, 464
acupuncture, 503
adaptive immunity, 420
adaptive mechanisms, 416
addition polymerization, 317, 319
Adelson, Edward, 551
adenine, 335, 342, 343, 346, 377
structure, 282
adenosine, 377
adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 375, 383, 391, 392
biosynthesis, 378–80, 379
phosphorylation, 389
adenosine monophosphate (AMP), 387
biosynthesis, 378–80, 379
see also cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 282, 375, 376–7
biosynthesis, 378, 380, 383, 384, 385, 386, 389, 391, 452
theories, 389–92
discovery, 372
effects on muscles, 461
energy storage, 371
hydrolysis, 380
in nervous system, 470–1
in plants, 450, 452, 454
roles, 349, 379
structure, 377–8, 379, 391
adenosine triphosphate synthase, 386, 389–90, 391, 455
adenovirus, 355, 359
adenylate cyclase, 503, 504
adhesives, 320–1
adipose tissue, 302
ADP see adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
adrenaline, 473, 492
adrenocorticotropic hormone, 504
Adrian, Edgar (1889–1977), 467, 496, 503, 515
aerobic bacteria, 353
aerobic metabolism, 445
aerobic respiration, 375, 380, 381, 387, 482–3
aestimato, 509
afference, 524–5
afferent nerves, 474
Afghanistan, 171, 202
Africa, 161
agate, 168
aggregates, 189
Agpalilik meteorite, 175
Agricola, Georgius (1494–1555), De re metallica (1556), 155
Ahlberg, Per, 417, 418, 427
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), 359
air, density, 56–7
aircraft industry, fatigue failure, 217
alabaster, 171
alanine, 277, 325
Albany, Duke Leopold of (1853–84), 400
Albert, Wilhelm (1787–1846), 217
Albin, Roger, 546
albite, 167–8, 172, 174
alchemists, 25, 39, 261, 262
alcohols, 266, 271–3
polyhydric, 273
primary, 266, 272
secondary, 266, 272
tertiary, 272
see also ethyl alcohol; methyl alcohol
alcohol vapour, reactions, with oxygen, 87
aldehydes, 266, 272, 280, 478
applications, 272
see also formaldehyde
Alder, Berni (1925–), 93
aldolase, 382
aldol condensation, 478
aldol cross-links, 478, 488
aldoses, 280
Alexandria (Egypt), 12
algae, 435
classification, 371, 433
alimentary system, 368, 412
aliphatic compounds, 267
oxygen in, 266–7
alite, 188, 190, 191, 194
hydration, 192
reactions, with water, 195
alkali feldspars, 167
alkali halides, 184
crystal structures, 109
ionic bonding, 65
vacancy motion, 125–6
alkali metals, 197
atomic structure, 50
crystal structure, 27
discovery, 27
ionization energies, 59–60
metallic bonding, 66
properties, 27
transparency, 239
alkaline earth metals, electron configuration, 58
alkaline earths, 27, 199
alkalis, 144
alkaloids, 491
alkanes, 263, 267–70
entropy, 269
free energy, 269
properties, 269–70
structure, 72, 73–4
alkenes, 265, 269–70
synthesis, 286–7
alkines see alkynes
alkyl chains, 273
alkyl groups, 266, 269, 271
alkyl radicals, 272
alkynes, 265, 270
alleles, 395
allomorphisms, 99
allose, 280
allosteric changes, 465
allosteric enzymes, 354
allosteric model, 354
allosteric structural changes, 486
alloying, 210
alloying agents, 220
alloys, 201, 202
amorphous, 256
eutectic, 220
impurities, 126
alloy steels, 214–15
alluvial deposits, 197
alpha helices, 331, 332–3, 334
alpha particles, 39, 41
alpha rays, 31
alpha rhythm, 503
Altman, Sidney (1939–), 343, 364
Altmann, Richard (1852–1900), 372
altrose, 280
Altwein, Monika, 519
alumina, 157, 187, 198, 207, 248
low-angle boundaries, 185
aluminate, 191
reactions, with water, 195
aluminate phase, 190, 191, 196
aluminium, 168
abundance, 154–5
applications, 221
atomic structure, 50
crystal structure, 117
crystal surface, 129
ionization energy, 60
ores, 170, 207
production, electrolytic, 207
production costs, 203
aluminium hydroxide, seeding, 207
aluminium–magnesium alloys, 214
aluminium–manganese alloys, quasicrystals, 110–11
aluminium–manganese–palladium alloys, quasicrystals, 111
aluminium oxides, 234
corrosion resistance, 187
hydrated, 177
aluminium phosphates, 183, 196
aluminium silicate, 168
aluminosilicate glasses, 248
aluminosilicates, 197, 198
alveolar lining, 302
Amanita muscaria (fly agaric), 489
amber, 164, 174
ambiguities, 548–9
American Indians, 514
American Pavillion (Montreal, Canada), 276
American Phrenological Journal, 520
amethyst, 168
amide links, 327
amides, 282
amines, 282–3
and vitamins, 283
amino-acid residues, 322, 323, 327, 329
amino acids, 144, 158, 282–3, 381, 485
activated, 349
classification, 325, 442
essential, 324
ionized forms, 328
non-essential, 324
non-polar, 325
novel, 350
polymerization, 325
structure, 323–4
amino-acid sequences, 327, 330
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), 473, 490
amino citric acid, 350
amino groups, 282, 323–4
ammonia, 143, 220, 282
molecular formula, 64
production, 92
sigma bonds, 71
ammonium chloride, 223, 261, 262
ammonium cyanate, 261, 262
amnesia, anterograde, 485
amorphous materials, 85, 118, 308
see also glasses
amorphous polymers, 320
amorphous selenium, 252–3
amorphous semiconductors, 251–2
doping, 252
amorphous silicon, 252
amorphous solids, 101
amorphous state, 246
AMP see adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
Ampère, André-Marie, 241
amphetamines, 502
amphiboles, 166, 167
abundance, 168
amphipathic molecules, 91
amphiphilic molecules, 273
amplifiers, 231–4
amygdala, 483, 484, 494
amylase, 381
amylopectin, 282
amyloplasts, 454
amylose, 282, 440
amyl radical, 269
amylum, 269
anabolic processes, 492
anaerobic respiration, 375, 387, 483
anaesthetics, 266, 271
analgesics, 503
anaphase, 395, 396, 397
Ancient Egyptians, 110, 205, 491, 493
brain injury studies, 508, 516
glass beads, 245
glass vessels, 255
glazed pottery, 196
resins, 307
Ancient Greeks
astronomical calculations, 12–13
brain studies, 508
materialism, 508
philosophy, 50
states of matter, 78
Anderson, Philip (1923–), 23, 236, 246, 252
andesite, 167, 175
Andrade, Edward Neville da Costa (1887–1971), 135
Andromeda, 3
Anfinsen, Christian (1916–95), 329, 330
Angiospermae, 433, 437, 458
Ặngström unit, 38
animal cells, 367, 370
animal hemisphere, 412
animals, 460–507
consciousness, 14
intelligence, 14
metabolism, 368
structure, 368–9
animal starch, 281
anions, 126, 148, 164
anion vacancies (AVs), 126, 235, 238
annealing, 218, 363
dislocations, 125
annealing point, glasses, 248
Anning, Mary (1799–1847), 160
annual rings, trees, 443
anodes, 147–50
sacrificial, 146, 151
anomalous Hall effect, 231
anorthite, 168, 174
Antarctic, 149
bacteria, 335
Antennapedia gene, 411
anterior cingulate, 531, 539
anterograde amnesia, 485
anthracite, 177
Anthropoidea, 513
antibiotics, 355, 361
antibodies, 416–22
structure, 430
anticipated feedback, 527, 529–31
anticipation, 525
anticodons, 348
antiferromagnetism, 242
antiferromagnets, 242
antigens, 416–22
anus, 412
Aparamán-tepui (Venezuela), 427
apatite, 170
apes, 425, 513
chromosomes, 423
see also chimpanzees; gorillas; humans; orangutans
apex, 449
apical meristems, 443
apoptosis, 431
aqueous conduction, 147–8
aqueous corrosion, 146, 150–1
arabans, 280–2
Arabidopsis thaliana (mouse-ear cress), sequencing, 365
arabinose, 280, 440, 442
arachidic acid, structure, 274
Araucaria spp. (conifers), 438
Arber, Werner (1929–), 361
Archeopteryx spp. (fossil birds), 425
architecture, International Style, 190
Arctic, 149
Arctic Mongoloids, 514
Arderne of Newark, John (1266–1308), 62
arenaceous group, 176
Arendal (Norway), 172
argillaceous group, 176, 179
arginine, 325, 337
argon, 141
electron affinity, 74
electron configuration, 58
ionization energy, 60
argon atoms, energy states, 46
Aristotle (384–322 BC), 23, 139, 140, 362, 403, 517
Arnold, William (1904–2001), 450, 451
Arnon, Daniel, 450
aromatic compounds, 279
Arrhenius, Svante (1859–1927), 143, 144, 158, 353
Arrhenius criterion, 145
arsenic pentoxide, as network former, 249
arsenic telluride, 251
arterial blood, 483–4
arteriosclerosis, 294
arthritis, 487
Arthropoda, 487
artificial fibres, 307
artificial satellites, 4
communications, 17
orbital speeds, 6
orbits, 32, 38
artificial silk, 309
asbestos, 184, 316
Asbestos (Canada), 166
Ascaris spp. (intestinal parasites), 501
ascorbic acid see vitamin C
Aserinsky, Eugene (1921–98), 503
Asia
petroleum, 177
pottery, 196
aspartic acid, 325, 326
Aspdin, Joseph (1778–1855), 188–9, 188, 200
asphalt, 177, 264
Asscher, Joseph, 178
Assyrians, 489, 493
Astbury, William (1898–1961), 331
asthenosphere, 161
Aston, Francis (1877–1945), 44–5
astrology, 3
astronomy, early, 3
Aswan (Egypt), 12
atactic polymers, 311, 313
atactic polystyrene, 320
atherosclerosis, 487, 498
Atlantis, 159
atmosphere, formation, 158
atmospheric air, density, 56–7
atmospheric pressure, 83, 84, 88
atmospheric temperature, 84
atom, 17
atoma, 25
atomic arrangements, 77–97
crystalline solids, 104–6
in crystals, 102–11
atomic bombs, 21
atomic diffusion, 197
atomic magnets, 242
atomic masses, 44
atomic nuclei, 1, 21
atomic number, 29, 38–9, 41, 42
atomic spectra, 25
atomic structure, 47–52
probes, 31
atomic theory, 27, 32
atomic vibrations, 124
atomic weights, 26–7, 38–9
order, 27
Atomium (Belgium), 106
atoms, 21, 25–52
early studies, 25–7
electrical neutrality, 29
electronegative, 60, 65, 66
electronic structure, 47
electropositive, 60, 65, 66
excited state, 31–2
formation, 1
internal structure, 28
ionization, 47, 137
motions, 84–5
origin of term, 50
representations, 77
self-organized, 111
types of, 25
wave states, 69
see also impurity atoms
ATP see adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
attention, 529, 531, 539
control, 543
mammals, 532
attenuation, wave motion, 95
audioreceptors, 475, 478–9
auditory cortex, 483
auditory illusions, 522
auditory mode, 535
augite, 167, 172, 173, 174, 175
austenite, 211, 212
austenite–martensite transition, 213
austenitic stainless steels, 214–15
Australia, 161, 427
Australian silky oak, 459
Australoids, 514
Australopithecus spp. (hominids), 513
Australopithecus africanus (hominid), 513
Australopithecus robustus (hominid), 513
Austria, 166
autism, 366
attention problems, 543
and intelligence, 543
and language, 543–5
and motor sequencing, 544
and nervous system, 543
autoimmune diseases, 420
autonomic ganglia, 474
autoradiograph, 158
autoradiographic gels, 362
autostereograms, 536
autotrophic bacteria, 368
autotrophic groups, 433
autotrophic organisms, 324, 368, 435
auxins, 444, 448
avalanche effect, 238
average free path, electrons, 251
Avery, Oswald, 400
Avogadro, Amedeo (1776–1856), 54
AVs (anion vacancies), 126, 235, 238
awareness, 546–9
Axel, Richard (1946–), 477–8
axonemes, 374
axons, 466, 471
giant, 467
Azerbaijan, 264
azimuthal quantum number, 38, 47–8, 50, 52
p-azoxyanisole, structure, 290
Aztecs, 183
azurite, 170
Babel, Tower of, 118
baboons, 513
deception, 554
Bacillariophyta (diatoms), 433
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (bacterium), restriction enzymes, 352
Bacon, Francis (1561–1626), 14–15, 158–63, 289
Bacon, Roger (c.1214–1294), 14, 61–2
bacteria, 399–400
aerobic, 353
Antarctic, 335
autotrophic, 368
classification, 371, 376
conjugation, 401
Gram-negative, 376
Gram-positive, 376
heterotrophic, 368
locomotion, 517–19
photosynthetic, 389
phototrophic, 433
respiration, 389
see also soil bacteria
bacterial cells, 367
bacteriophages, 323, 355, 358–9, 401
Bactria, 202
Badakhshan (Afghanistan), 171
Baddeley, Alan, 529
Baedeker, K., 225
Baekeland, Leo (1863–1944), 310
Baeyer, Adolf von (1835–1917), 270
Bailey, Anthony, 543
Bailey, John, 194
Bailey, Kenneth, 464
Bakelite, 310, 317
Bak, Leth, 358
Baku (Azerbaijan), 264
balance, sense of, 475–7
ball-and-stick models, 265
ballistic reflexes, 528
balsa, 458, 458
Baltic Sea, 174
Baltimore, David (1938–), 359
Bam H1, 352, 361
band gaps, 226, 227, 234
Bandler, Richard, 484
band structure, 229
band theory, 228–9, 232, 237
Bangham, Alec, 304
Bang, O., 428
Bardeen, John (1908–91), 224, 232–3, 236, 284
Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory, 236
principles, 232–3
barium, 46
barium fluoride, 186
barium salts, flame test, 32
barium sulfates, 170
bark, 436
Barlow, Horace (1921–), 551
Barnett, Leslie, 351
barrelene, 285
Bartlett, Frederic (1886–1969), 527
Bartlett, Neil (1932–), 74
Barton, Derek (1918–98), 286
barytes, 170
basal ganglia, 494, 500, 502, 532, 548
and autism, 543
functions, 545–6
basalt, 161, 165–7, 173, 175
lunar, 173
base, 231
base analogues, 362
base pairs, 343
bases, 143–4
crystals, 103
importance of, 144
nucleotide, 341
basic instincts, 527–8
basic oxygen steel, production, 209
basilar membranes, 479
basketane, 285
Bass, L., 505
bats
intestines, 371
pancreas, 386
batteries (electric) see electric batteries
bauxite, 170, 177, 207
Bayer process, 207
Bayeux tapestry, 13
Baykoff, J., 194
bcc crystal structure see body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal structure
B-cells, 417
4BCMU (butoxycarbonylmethyleneurethanediacetylene), 278
BCS theory see Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory
Beadle, Clayton, 309
Beadle, George, 399
Bechgaard, Klaus, 285
Bechgaard salts, 285
Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmond (1820–91), 235
Becquerel, Henri (1852–1908), 29, 31, 39
Bedlam Furnace (Coalbrookdale), 205
Bednorz, Johannes Georg (1950–), 229, 233
Beeli, Conradin (1962–), 111
Beermann, Wolfgang (1921–2000), 407
behaviourism, 521–2
Behrens, Martin, 336–7
Békésy, Georg von (1899–1972), 479
Belgium, 427
belite, 188, 190, 191
hydration, 192
reactions, with water, 195
Bellis perennis (daisy), embryo sacs, 457
Bell Laboratories (USA), 224
bellows, 205
bells, 219
Belousov, Boris (1893–1970), 361, 363–4
bend, liquid crystals, 295–6
Bennett, J. Claude, 430
Bennett, M. D., 422
bentonite, 363
benzene, 145, 177, 279, 318, 320
structure, 272, 275
benzene rings, 275
Benzer, Seymour (1921–), 351
Berg, Howard, 517–19
Berg, Paul, 361
Bergama (Turkey), 508
Berger, Hans (1873–1941), 503
Berger, Klaus, 503
Bergman, Torbern (1735–84), 98
beri-beri, 283
Bernal, John (1901–71), 152, 184, 239, 283, 331, 363
cement studies, 194
graphite structure, 100
liquid state model, 83–4, 141, 255–8
nematic crystal studies, 290
Berns, Gregory, 539
Bernstein, Julius, 466, 467
Berthoz, Alain (1939–), 521
Bertles, J. F., 487
Berufjord (Iceland), 166
beryl, 234
beryllium, electron configuration, 50
beryllium aluminosilicate, 234
beryllium oxide, 249
Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848), 261, 262, 353
Bessemer, Henry (1813–98), 207
Bessemer converters, 207–9
limitations, 208–9
beta particles, 41
beta rays, 31
beta sheets, 331
Bethe, Hans (1906–2005), 229
Bevan, Edward John (1856–1921), 309
Beyerinck, Martinus, 358
Bible, studies, 154
bifurcation, 428
big bang, 79
theory, 1, 3, 16–17, 17, 21–2
big crunch, 22, 79
Big Hole (South Africa), 178
bilayers, 303
phospholipid, 376
see also lipid bilayers
binary fission, 395
binding energy, 42–3
binding problems, 533–5
Bingham, E. C., 92
Bingham flow, 92
Binnig, Gerd (1947–), 63, 212
binomial nomenclature, 419–20
biochemistry, 152
biological acids, 144
biological clock, 361
biological membranes, 300–4
biological sciences, 23
biology, developmental, 402, 403
biopolymers, 322–66, 367
roles, 322
biotin, 399
biotite mica, 174, 197
Birchall, Derek, 194
birds
brain, 512, 552–3
deception, 554
muscles, 465, 466
birefringent materials, 291
Birkeland, Kristian (1867–1917), 92
bis-(p-6-methyloctyloxybenzylidene)-2-chloro-1,4-phenylenediamine, structure, 293
Bitter, Francis (1902–67), 242
Bitter technique, 243
bitumen, 164
bituminous coal, 177
bivalents, 396, 397
Bjerrum, Niels (1879–1958), 153
black cast iron, 214
black coal, 177
black dwarfs, 226
black holes, 6, 11, 550
Blackman, Moses (1908–83), 113
black rust, 148
blacksmiths, 4, 122–3, 203, 204–5, 212, 215
quenching processes, 213
Blain, P., 218
Blakemore, Colin, 495
blast furnaces, 205, 206
blastomeres, 411–12
blastopores, 412
blastula, 412, 501
Blatt, Michael, 457
Blattner, Fred, 365
blende, 170
blind spot, 502
blister steel, 214
Bloch, Felix (1905–83), 225, 226, 227–8, 242, 242, 251
Bloch walls, 242–3, 242, 259
see also magnetic domain walls
Bloch waves, 251
Block, Ned (1942–), 524
block copolymers, 311, 321
blood, 139, 170, 412, 476, 482–8
arterial, 483–4
clotting, 91
haem, 179
venous, 484
blood-brain barrier, 502
blood flow, studies, 498
blood groups, 476
blood oxygenation level dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging (BOLD fMRI), 501, 531
bloodstone, 168
blood transfusions, 476
bloomeries, 203
blooms, 204
blue-green algae, classification, 371
body cells see somatic cells
body-centred cubic (bcc) crystal structure, 96, 109, 117, 120–2, 216
iron, 210, 212, 213
Bogotá (Colombia), 166
Bohr, Aage (1922–), 45
Bohr, Christian (1855–1911), 486
Bohr, Harald (1887–1951), 110
Bohr, Henrik, 331
Bohr, Niels (1885–1962), 32, 36, 37, 40, 225
Bohr effect, 486
boiling, effect, 78
boiling points, 85
elements, 90
boiling temperature, 83
BOLD fMRI (blood oxygenation level dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging), 501, 531
Bolivar State (Venezuela), 427
Bollmann, Walter, 123
Boltzmann, Ludwig (1844–1906), 80, 85, 224, 225
Boltzmann’s constant, 85
bond energies, 64
Bondi, Hermann (1919–2005), 1
bonding
covalent, 59, 66–7, 68, 75, 227
directional, 48
heteropolar, 66, 67
homopolar, 66
hydrogen, 67, 70, 75, 153, 265
ionic, 65, 66, 67, 184
metallic, 66–7, 75
sigma-pi, 265
three-centre, 285
types of, 66
bonds
dangling, 118
double, 269–70
multiple, 265
permanent dipole, 70
pi, 68, 72–3, 270, 324–5
primary, 67
secondary, 67
sigma, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72–3, 267
triple, 270
unsaturated, 302, 308
van der Waals, 67–70, 75, 198, 439
see also covalent bonds; hydrogen bonds; interatomic bonds
Bondy, Stephen, 363
bone, 25, 488–91
bone china, 197
boranes, 285–6
bordered pit pairs, 437, 439
Boring, Edwin (1886–1968), 548
Borisy, Gary, 398
Born, Max (1882–1970), 37, 39, 59, 96, 113
liquid crystal theories, 295
Borodin, Aleksandr (1833–87), Prince Igor (1890), 478
boron, atomic structure, 50
boron oxide, 248
boron trioxide, as network former, 249
borosilicate glasses, 248, 254
Borthwick, H. A., 444
Bosch, Carl (1874–1940), 92
Bosch, Hieronymus (1450–1516), 555
Bose, Satyendra (1894–1974), 40
Bose–Einstein condensate, 40
Botstein, David, 364
Bouligand, Y., 296
bovine pancreatic ribonuclease, 329
bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), 518
Bowen’s reaction series, 174
Boyer, Paul (1918–), 389–90, 391
Boyle, Robert (1627–91), 25
Brachet, Jean (1909–98), 337
Bradbury, E. Morton, 357
Bragg, William Henry (1862–1942), 100, 101, 152, 184, 454
Bragg, William Lawrence (1890–1971), 100, 101, 184, 454, 485
Bragg diffraction, 227, 251
Bragg interference, 296
Brahe, Tycho (1546–1601), 14
Braille, 523
brain, 414, 473, 492–507
anatomy, 481, 483, 485, 486
birds, 512, 552–3
and computers compared, 499–500, 510
coronal section, 500
early studies, 508–11
evolution, 512
future research, 500–1
grey matter, 24
layers, 483
mesogens, 294
monkeys, 499
PET imaging, 497, 539
primary visual area, 524
studies, 537–8
theories, 482
ventricles, 508–10
white matter, 23–4
brain function, 481, 493
top-down influences, 549, 550, 551, 555
brain injuries, early studies, 508, 516–17
brainstem, 483
brainstem reticular formation, 532
brain surgery, 537
brain weight-body weight ration, 512, 513
Brattain, Walter (1902–87), 224, 232
Bravais, Auguste (1811–63), 100, 103, 104, 107
Bravais lattices, 100, 103, 104–6, 107, 113
Bray, William, 361
brazes, 85
Brazil, 166, 180
Brearley, Harry (1871–1948), 152, 214–15
breccia, 176
Brenner, Sydney (1927–), 345, 351, 501
bricks, 188, 196–200
chemistry of, 197
firing, 199
green, 199
manufacture, 198–200
refractory, 187
bridges, metal, 208, 209
Bridgman, Percy (1882–1961), 153
Brill, J., 256
British Phrenological Society, 520
Britten, Roy, 422
brittle, 185
brittle crumbling, 216
brittle fractures, 133, 136–7
brittle materials, 117
Broca, Paul (1824–80), 495–6
Broca’s area, 496, 498
Br⊘nsted, Johannes Nicolaus (1879–1947), 143
bronze
cast, 202
composition, 201
Bronze Age, 201
Brown, Herbert (1912–2004), 287
Brown, L. Michael, 217
Brown, Robert (1773–1858), 89, 371
brown coal, 177
Browne, Thomas (1605–82), 77
Brownian motion, 89, 92
Browning, Robert (1812–89), 182, 261
brown rust, 148
Brügger, M., 484
Brunel, Marc Isambard (1769–1849), 188
Brunet, Michel (1940–), 514
Brussels (Belgium), 106
BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), 518
Büchner, Eduard (1860–1917), 353
Büchner, Hans (1850–1902), 353
Buchwald, Vagn, 175
Buckley, Ian, 373
Buck, Linda (1947–), 477–8
buckminsterfullerene, 276
Bucy, Paul, 484
bulk deformation, 95–6
Burgers, Johannes (1895–1981), 121, 123–4
Burgers vectors, 121, 123–4, 125, 132
Burgoyne, Leigh, 357
Burke, E. J., 199
Burnet, F. MacFarlane, 420
burnt lime, 188
butadiene, 287
butane
isomers, 268–9
structural formula, 263
iso-butane, 269
structural formula, 263
n-butane, 268–9
structural formula, 268
Butea frondosa (tree), 307
cis-2-butene, structural formula, 268
trans-2-butene, structural formula, 268
Butler, Ann, 552
butoxycarbonylmethyleneurethane- diacetylene (4BCMU), 278
butylene, isomers, 270
C60, 276
Cabinetmaker’s walnut, 459
cadmium sulfide, crystals, 109
Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode), 501
sequencing, 365
caffeine, 491
Cairns-Smith, Graham (1931–), 363
calcination, 190
calcite, 98, 130, 169, 170, 171
crystals, 99, 210
double refraction, 169
fluorescence, 161
calcium, 167, 168, 199
abundance, 155
calcium carbide, 265
calcium carbonate, 169, 475–7
calcium channels, 505
calcium fluoride, 171, 186
calcium hydroxide, 188, 191, 192, 194
calcium magnesium carbonates, 169
calcium magnesium silicates, 184
calcium oxide, 188
calcium phosphate, 209
calcium silicate hydrate, 190, 191, 194
fibrils, 195
calcium sulfate, hydrated, 170
calcium sulfoaluminohydrates, 192–3
California (USA), 161
gold nuggets, 169
calories, 80, 81
Calvin, Melvin (1911–97), 454, 456
cambium, 436–7, 443
Cambrian Period, 164
Cambridge (UK), 229
camels, 503
cAMP see cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
camphor, 320
Canada, 166, 172, 276
Canada balsam, 296
cancer, 427–31
cancer cells, 429–31
candy floss, 250
cane sugar, 271, 280
Canis familiaris (dog), 420
Canis lupus (wolf), 420
cannons, metals, 219
Cape York (Greenland), 175
capillarity, 86, 447
capillus,86
capsid, 359
capsomers, 359
carbamide, 282
see also urea
carbides, 187
carbohydrates, 279–82, 281
carbon, 87, 158, 164, 180, 223, 261–88
bond energy, 64
crystal structures, 99, 100
hydrogen bonding, 70
in iron manufacture, 205
nuclei, 39
occurrence, 169–70
properties, 264
valence, 64
see also charcoal; diamond(s); graphite
α-carbon, 324, 325
carbonates, 164, 165, 169, 170, 176
carbon atoms
closed rings, 279
rings, 270
carbon black, 253
carbon–carbon bonds, 73, 263
saturated, 268
unsaturated, 302
carbon cycle, 377
carbon dioxide, 158, 271, 375
conversion, 454
early studies, 435
carbon disulfide, 309
carbon fibres, fracture stress, 64
carbonic acid, 144, 282
Carboniferous, 164
carbon isotopes, 42, 179
carbon tetrachloride, 269
carbonyl carbon, 324
carbonyl group, 272
carboranes, 286
carborundum, 182
Β-carboxyaspartic acid, 350
γ-carboxyglutamic acid, 350
carboxyl group, 144, 267, 272–3, 282, 323–4, 327
carcinogenic viruses, 428–9
Carelli, Pasquale, 236
Carey, N. H., 422
Carlisle, Anthony (1768–1842), 148
Carneiro, Kim, 285
Carney, Darrell, 398
carnivorous plants, 442
Carnot, Nicolas Léonard Sadi (1796–1832), 79
Carothers, Wallace (1896–1937), 310
Carpenter, Roger, 550, 551
Carroll, Lewis (1832–98), 222, 306
cartilage, 487
cartridge cases, failure, 220
case-hardening, processes, 214–15
casein, 309–10
Caspar, Donald (1927–), 359, 408–9
Caspersson, Torbjörn (1910–97), 337
cassiterite, 170
casting, 212, 215–16
cast iron, 150, 213–14
black, 214
composition, 213
grey, 213–14
white, 213
catabolic processes, 491–2
catabolism, 378
catalase, 88
catalysis, 92
stereospecific, 319
catalysts, 265, 312, 316, 353
applications, 88
mechanisms, 87–8
RNA molecules as, 364
see also enzymes
catalyst–substrate complexes, 353–4
Catarrhini, 513
cathode rays, 28–9
magnetic field effects, 29
cathodes, 147–50
cations, 126
cation vacancies (CVs), 126
cation vacancy, 235
cats, 484
brain, 494, 512
Cat’s Eye Nebula, 8
cat’s whisker, 232
Caucasoids, 514
caustic soda see sodium hydroxide
Cavalier-Smith, T., 422
Cavendish, Henry (1731–1810), 139, 148
cdc2 gene, 431
CDC28 gene, 431
CDC genes, 431
CDK1 gene, 431
CDK (cyclin-dependent kinase), 431
Cech, Thomas (1947–), 343, 364
Celanese, 309
cell–cell fusion, 303
cell–cell recognition, 417
cell–cell signalling, 405
cell character, change of, 405
cell cycle control, 431
cell death, 429–31
cell differentiation, 371, 402, 405–7, 406, 412–14
plants, 443, 444–5
cell division, 337, 371, 372, 392, 394, 411–13
and chromosomes, 394–9
see also meiosis; mitosis
cell fusion, 394
cell membrane, 300–1, 370, 373–6, 413
composition, 374–5
mesogens in, 300
cell movement, 405, 412–14
cell multiplication, 405
cell nuclei, 337
cellophane, 309
cells, 367–402
animal, 367, 370
bacterial, 367
cancer, 429–31
characteristics, 371
development, 158
epithelial, 374
fibre, 437
gamete, 405
glial, 501, 502
living, 294
malignant, 427–9
roles, 367–8, 370–1
somatic, 397, 411
structure, 337
surface, 373–4, 414
see also erythrocytes; germ cells; leukocytes; lymphocytes; plant cells; T-cells
cellular differentiation see cell differentiation
cellular membranes see cell membrane
cellular organisms, 367–8
celluloid, 308–9, 320
applications, 309
cellulose, 273, 282, 306, 438, 440, 448–9, 487
formation, 281
non-moldable, 316
in plant cell walls, 376
in plastics, 309
structure, 439–42, 441
cellulose acetate, 309
cellulose nitrate, 308, 309, 320
cellulose trinitrate, 309
cellulose xanthate, 09
cell walls, plant cells, 376
Celsius scale, 81, 135
cement, 170, 188–96
chemistry, 191
hardening process, 190, 194–6
manufacture, 190
early, 186, 188
mechanical properties, 198
rapid, 193
reactions, with water, 193, 194–6
see also concrete; Portland cement
cementation process, 214
cement clinker, 188
cementite, 203, 211, 213
cement making, Etruscans, 186
cement paste, 189–90, 194
Cenozoic, 164
central nervous system (CNS), 473–4
centres of symmetry, 103
centrifugal forces, 4
centrioles, 372, 397
centrosomes, 395
Cepheid variables, 22
ceramics, 182–200
applications, 187–8
classification, 188
corrosion resistance, 184–5, 187
definitions, 182
diffusion, 185–7
dislocations, 185
electrical effects, 185–6
electrical insulators, 187
firing, 196
grain boundaries, 185, 187
hardness, 185
heat conduction, 187
magnetic, 187–8
melting temperatures, 185
properties, 184–7
silicate units, 182–4
technological impacts, 185
thermal conductivity, 187
use of term, 182
vacancies, 185–6
cerebellum, 483, 486, 494, 545
and autism, 543
cerebral cortex, 483, 485, 486, 494–5, 499, 537
mapping, 498
cerebroside, structure, 299
Cerenkov, Pavel (1904–90), 44
Cerenkov radiation, 44
cermets, 188
Chadwell, H. M., 141
Chadwick, James (1891–1974), 40–2
chain reactions, 46, 138
chair conformation, 439
chalcopyrite, 170
Chalfie, Martin, 373
chalk, 177
Chalmers, David (1966–), 523, 538
Chambon, Pierre, 422
champagne, 266, 271
Chance, Britton (1913–), 354
Changeux, Jean-Pierre (1936–), 354, 472
chaos, 428
deterministic, 428
chaotic motion, molecules, 81
chaperones, 518
Chappell, Jackie, 552
charcoal, 61–2, 201
in iron production, 203, 205
Chardonnet process, 309
Chargaff, Erwin (1905–2002), 341
charge conservation, 222
charge localization, 186
Charles V, Emperor (1500–58), 183
Chase, Martha, 401
chemical activity, 270
chemical affinity, 57, 58, 157
chemical bonds, 53–76
chemical composition, 25, 53
chemical compounds, 25
compositions, 53
chemical energy, 4
chemical exchange, 198
chemical formulae, 53
chemical gradients, 408
chemical group rocks, 176–7
chemical reactions, 25–7, 53–4, 87, 144
catalysis, 87–8, 92
and free energy change, 88
irreversible, 53
reversible, 53
chemical synthesis, 270
chemiosmotic theory, 392
chemiostatic force, 390–2, 452
chemistry, theoretical, 270
chemoreceptors, 474, 477–8
chemotaxis, 413–14
Chen, H. S., 260
chiasmata, 396
Chicago (Illinois), 118
Child, C. M., 408
Chile, 171
chimpanzees, 423, 429, 513, 514
brain, 512
China, 198, 427
cometary studies, 13
gunpowder, 62
chirality, 286, 294, 296
Chirikov, Boris, 428
chitin, 282, 349, 487
chlorine
electronegativity, 66
ionization energy, 62–3
liquefaction, 84
chlorine ions, 145
chloroform, 269
chlorophyll, 179
euglenids, 369
in plants, 368, 450, 452, 453, 454
structure, 453
synthesis, 287
chlorophyll a, 450, 453
chlorophyll b, 450, 453
chlorophyll c, 450, 453
Chlorophyta (green algae), 433
chloroplasts, 370, 371, 377, 450, 454, 456
behaviour, 457
composition, 451
DNA, 372
early studies, 450
cholesteric liquid crystals, 291, 292, 296
applications, 296
blue phase, 297
structure, 292, 295
cholesterol, 286, 299, 302, 374–5, 376, 491
structure, 299
synthesis, 287
cholesteryl benzoate, 289–90
structure, 290
choline, structure, 298
Chordata, 513
Chothia, Cyrus, 331
Christensen, Mark, 531
chromatids, 357, 394–7, 396
chromatin, 354, 357, 394
chromatography, 330
chromium, 214–15
chromophores, 481
chromoproteins, 444
chromosomes, 337, 356, 361, 407, 416
and cell division, 394–9
homologous, 396
humans vs. apes, 423
multiplication, 337
separation, 394
sequencing, 365
sexual differentiation, 393
structure, 354
telomeres, 431
Chrysophyta (golden-brown algae), 433
Chu, Paul (1941–), 229
church windows, 254
cilia, 369, 370, 465, 475, 477
Ciliophora, 369
circadian rhythms, 361
circulatory systems, 476, 483–4
cis- nomenclature, 277, 315
cisternae, 372
citrate, 361
citrate synthetase, 384
citric-acid cycle, 378, 382
CJD (Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease), 518
Clack, Jennifer, 417, 418, 425
cladistic analysis, 427
cladograms, 421
Clark, Andy, 521
Clark, N. A., 295
Classic Mongoloids, 514
clastic rocks, 176
arenaceous group, 176
argillaceous group, 176, 179
rudaceous group, 176
Clausius, Rudolf (1822–88), 79
Claverie, Jean-Michel, 365
clays, 176, 182, 189
in brick-making, 196–200
composition, 197–8
modelling, 92
montmorillite, 363
mouldability, 198
occurrence, 196
structure, 198
see also kaolinite
Clayton, Nicola, 552
cleavage, 98, 412
enzymes, 361–2
homolytic, 319
cleavage crack propagation, 136
Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (Mark Twain) (1835–1910), 524
Clever, Ulrich, 407
climb, 125, 213
dislocation, 136
clinker, 190
clonal selective theory, 420
clones, 420
closed rings, 279
clover-leaf patterns, 348
CNS (central nervous system), 473–4
CoA see coenzyme A (CoA)
coagulation, 91
coal
bituminous, 177
black, 177
brown, 177
deposits, 164, 205, 206
formation, 177
mining, 155
Coalbrookdale (Shropshire, UK), 205, 206, 208, 209
Coates, Michael, 425
Coble, R. L., 199
cobwebs, 307
coccyx, 415
Cochet, Madeleine, 422
cochlea, 479
codons, 348, 350, 421
coelacanths, 425
coenzyme A (CoA), 378
discovery, 383–4
coenzyme Q, 386
diffusion, 388
structure, 388
coenzymes, 354–5, 380
coercivity, metallic glasses, 259
cofactors, 383–4
coffee, 491
cognatio, 509
cognition, 527
theories, 522
unconscious, 521
cognitive events, 535–6
Cohen, Carolyn, 464
Cohen, Jonathan, 539
Cohen, Morrel, 84, 93, 252
Cohen, Stanley, 424
coherence length, 233
cohesion theory, of sap ascent, 447
coke, in iron production, 206
Colchester (UK), 246
colchicine, 398, 445
Colchicum autumnale (meadow saffron), 398
cold, sense of, 474
cold shortness, 206
cold working, 134, 202
Cole, K. S., 467
coliphages, 323
collagen, 478, 479, 487–91
collagenase enzyme, 488
collective oscillations, 364
collector, 231
collenchyma cells, 445
collinearity, 344
Collins, Francis, 365
collision cascades, 137, 137
colloidal gels, 191, 194, 195
colloidal metal particles, 255
colloidal suspensions, 89–92, 95, 197
colloids, 89
Colombia, 166
colour, perception of, 254
colour blindness, 482
colour centres, 126, 235, 238, 242
colour changes, in polydiacetylenes, 278–9
colourless glasses, 253–4
colour vision, 479, 481–2
columnar dendrites, 212, 215
combination, rules of, 53
comets, 10, 14, 31
early observations, 13
Comfort, Alex, 429
compasses (magnetic), 16, 222, 223, 239
competition
goals, 23
inter-species, 23
complementary molecules, 343
complements, 417
composites, 321
compounds, formation, 25–7
comprehension, 527
Compton Bay (Isle of Wight), 160
computer-aided molecular design, 285
computer circuitry, 46
computer memories, 243
computers, and brain compared, 499–500, 510
computer screens, 297
computer simulations, chaos, 428
Conan Doyle, Arthur (1859–1930), The Lost World (1912), 427
Conant, James (1893–1978), 484
concept, 527
concerted reactions, 288
concrete, 188, 192
properties, 189–90
reinforced, 190, 488
condensation, 280
gases, 57
condensation polymerization, 317, 318, 324, 325
condensation polymers, 316
condensed matter, 57, 83–4, 85
Condon, Edward (1902–74), 59
conduction
sound, 93–5
see also electrical conductivity; heat conduction; metallic conduction
conduction bands, 226, 227, 228, 234
conduction electrons, 187
conductors, 20, 222–44
quasicrystals, 111
superionic, 186
see also semiconductors; superconductors
cones, 479, 502
configurational hyperspace, 84
conglomerate, 176
conifers, 438, 458
conjugation, 360–1, 401, 401
consciousness, 14, 517
classification, 523
cosmic, 23
easy problem of, 523
evolution, 552–3
goals, 521
hard problem of, 523, 538
inside-out paradigm, 538, 545
and movement, 523–5, 529–54
paradigms, 530–1
and reflexes, 521–2, 523–4
requirements for, 529
stream of, 525–6
theories, 521–5, 546–54
conscious thought, 529
consensus, 7–9, 12
conservation of momentum, 21
conservation of total mass, 261
constellations, 2–3
contact inhibition, 427
context-specific reflexes, 528
continental drift, 14–15, 158–63
continuous creation, 1, 3
controlling elements, 423–4
convection currents, 93
Cooper, Grahame, 495
Cooper, Leon (1930–), 232–3, 236, 284
Cooper pairs, 233, 284
coordination numbers, 109, 247
Copenhagen (Denmark), 175
Copernicus, Nicolas (1473–1543), 14
copolymers, 311
block, 311, 321
graft, 311
copper, 146–7, 164, 183
abundance, 155
applications, 221
atomic mass, 44
cast, 202
colour, 239
crystal structure, 105, 120
crystal surface, 129
fatigued, 217
Fermi surface, 229
native, 157
occurrence, 169
ores, 203
polycrystalline surfaces, 128
smelting, 201
voids, 220
copper iron sulfides, 170
copper oxide, 220
copper–silicon alloys, 218
copper smelting, 196
copper sulfate, 88–9, 146, 223
crystals, 98, 100
copper-vapour lasers, 235
coral, 164
coral reefs, 177
cordite, 309
Corey, Robert (1897–1971), 332
Cori, Carl (1896–1984), 381
Cori, Gerty (1896–1957), 381
cork, structure, 367
cork cambium, 436
cornea, 487
Cornell, Eric (1961–), 40
Cornforth, John (1917–), 286
Corning Glass Works (USA), 188
corona discharge, 252–3
corpus callosum, 485, 495, 498–9
corpuscular theory, 35
corpus striatum, 502
Corradi, R., 8
corrosion, 202
aqueous, 146, 148, 150–1
economic impacts, 151–2
galvanic, 147, 148
iron, 187
metals, 220–1
corrosion resistance, 152
ceramics, 184–5, 187
metallic glasses, 259
Cortés, Hernando (1485–1547), 183
cortex, 436–7
Cort, Henry (1740–1800), 206–7
cortisone, synthesis, 287
corundum, 187, 234
Corvus moneduloides (New Caledonian crows), 552
cosmic microwave background, 16, 17
cosmic rays, 34
effects on atmospheric nitrogen, 42
Cotterill, Rodney, 84
cotton, 438
Cottrell, Alan (1919–), 135, 363
Courchesne, Eric, 543
Courtenay-Latimer, Marjorie (1907–2004), 425
covalent bonding, 59, 66–7, 68, 75, 227
covalent bonds, 99, 144, 152
directionality, 70
and glassy state, 245
polymers, 310
severance, 137
covalent compounds, 265
covalent crystals, 100–1
covalently bonded crystals, 125
Cowper, William (1731–1800), 154, 322
cowpox, 358
Crab Nebula, 8
crack growth, 116
crack opening, 136
crack propagation, 116
cleavage, 136
cracks, 117, 218
Griffith, 185, 196, 220
intergranular, 218
crack tip, propagation, 133
Crassius auratus (goldfish), 504
Crawford, Bryce, Jr. (1914–), 286
creation
chronologies, 154
continuous, 1, 3
geocentric view of, 12–13
spontaneous, 424–5
creep, 134, 135, 153, 216
and defects, 135–6
high-temperature, 135–6
lead, 215
cress, 441
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), 518
Crick, Francis (1916–2004), 332–3, 342–3, 351, 422, 487, 539
unit fibre studies, 358
virus studies, 359
cristae, 371, 386
cristobalite, 184, 247
crystal structure, 247
critical temperature, 83, 87
Cro-Magnon man, 514, 515, 517
Cromar, Michael, 236
Crookes, William (1832–1919), 28, 29
Crookes tube, 29
Cross, Charles (1855–1935), 309
Cross, Richard, 390
cross bridges, 462–3
crossed polarizers, 173, 300
cross-field pits, 437, 438
crossing over, 396, 397–8
Crossin, Kathryn, 398
cross-linked polymers, 77, 311, 315–16, 318
cross-modal perception, 533, 535
cross slip, 125, 214, 218
crown glasses, 253
crown jewels, British, 178
crucible steel, 214
Crustacea, 282, 487
cryolite, 207
crystal classes, 104
atomic arrangements, 104–6
see also crystal systems
crystal defects, 113, 211–12, 234–5, 237
concept of, 116
early studies, 116–26
thermal activation, 125
see also interfacial defects; line defects; point defects
crystal field splitting, 254–5
crystal glass, 246
crystal–glass interface, 260
crystal growth, 129
crystal lattices, 87, 94
crystalline insulators, 251
crystalline materials
microstructure, 133
minerals, 164
crystalline phase, 84, 131
crystalline solids, 101
atomic arrangements, 104–6
crystallinity, 111
factors affecting, 101–2
crystal–liquid interface, 85, 131
crystallites, 210
crystallization
latent heat of, 131
process, 320
crystallography, 98–115
contributions, 101
historical background, 98–101
crystalloids, 102, 110
crystals, 84, 85, 86
atomic arrangements, 102–11
bases, 103
covalent, 100–1
covalently bonded, 125
deformation, 116–17, 216
degrees of freedom, 128
diffusion, 87
disclinations, 130
energy storage, 137–8
hardening, 134
idealized states, 213
imperfect, 116–38
mechanical strength, 130–2
melting, 85
perfect, 98–115, 117, 137–8
piezo-electric, 168
pyro-electric, 168
representations, 77
single, 128, 129
thermal conductivity, 112–13
thermal vibration, 83
vibration frequencies, 112–13
see also ionic crystals; liquid crystals; polycrystals; quasicrystals
crystal structures, 27
allomorphisms, 99
body-centred cubic, 96, 109
early studies, 98–101
face-centred cubic, 96, 109
hexagonal close-packed, 109
stability, 96
X-ray diffraction studies, 101
crystal systems, 98–9, 100, 104
crystal systems see crystal classes
crystobalite, 173
cubane, 285
cubic lattices, 119
cullet, 249
Cullinan, Thomas (1862–1936), 178
Cullinan diamond, 178
cuprammonium rayon, 309
cups, Mycenaean, 184
Curie, Marie (1867–1934), 31, 39
Curie, Pierre (1859–1906), 31, 39, 241
Curie temperature, 241, 242
curiosity, and science, 13–14
Curl, Robert, 276
Curtis, H. J., 467
Cushing’s disease, 409–11
Custer (South Dakota, USA), 168, 172
cutaneous rabbit, 546–9
cuticle, 416
CVs (cation vacancies), 126
cyanide poisoning, 389
Cyanophyta (blue-green algae), 371, 433
cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 405, 406, 503, 505
inhibition, 491
cyclic compounds, 267
cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK), 431
cyclins, 431
Cycliophora, 420
cyclobutane, 287
cyclohexane, 286
structural formula, 268
cyclohexene, 287
cyclosilicates, 166
cyclosis, 369–70
cysteine, 325, 329
cystine bonds, 327
cystine bridge, 326
cystine disulfide, 329
cytochalasin B, 373
cytochrome c, 384
cytochrome chains, 452
cytochromes, 386, 449
cyanide poisoning, 389
roles, 389
structure, 388
cytokinins, 443, 448
cytoplasm, 303, 336, 337, 344, 371
cytoplasmic membrane, 413
cytoplasmic membrane see cell membrane
cytopyge, 370
cytosine, 335, 342, 343, 346
structure, 282
cytoskeleton, 373, 398, 414
Daeschler, Edward, 418, 426–7
daggers, 204–5
Dale, Henry, 503
Dalton, John (1766–1844), 26–7, 54
Damascus (Syria), 215
Damasio, Hanna, 516–17
dangling bonds, 118
Daniell, John Frederick (1790–1845), 146
Daniell cell, 146–8, 223
Danielli, James, 301–2
Dansgaard, Willi (1922–), 149
Darby, Abraham (1678–1717), 205, 206
dark matter, 22
dark reaction, 449
Dart, Raymond (1893–1988), 513
Darwin, Charles (1809–82), 23, 404, 416, 424, 442, 443
The Origin of Species (1859), 392, 417, 427
Darwin, Francis (1848–1925), 443
Darwin–Wallace theory, 403
data storage, magnetic, 243
Davidson, Eric, 422
Davidson, J. N., 341
Davis, M., 283
Davis, Ronald, 364
Davisson, Clinton (1881–1958), 35
Davson, Hugh, 301–2
Dead Sea, 176–7
Deaver, B. S., 236
De Boer, J. H., 232
de Broglie, Louis (1892–1987), 35, 37, 39
de Broglie wavelength, 251
Debye, Peter (1884–1966), 83, 113, 114, 256
decay, 235
deception, 554
deciduous trees, 458
decimal exponent notation, 3
declarative memory, 540
deduction, 14–15
de Duve, Christian (1917–), 372
defects
and creep, 135–6
and energy change, 133–4
and entropy change, 133–4
and fractures, 136–7
see also crystal defects
deformation
bulk, 95–6
crystals, 116–17, 216
early studies, 116–18
mechanical, 134
metals, 185
permanent, 117
plastic, 96, 117, 121, 213, 216
rates, 134–5
shear, 95
tensile, 95
degeneracy, 351, 352
degenerate energy levels, 49
degrees of freedom, crystals, 128
de Havilland 110 (aircraft), 217
Dehlinger, Ulrich (1901–83), 118
Deisenhofer, Johann (1943–), 452, 455
Dejerine, Jules (1849–1917), 495
de la Mare, Walter (1873–1956), 333
Delbrück, Max (1906–81), 343, 401
Delgado, José, 484
de Loutherbourg, Philip (1740–1812), ‘Coalbrookdale at Night’ (1801), 205
Dement, William (1928–), 503
Democritus (460 BC), 25
denaturation, 363
denatured proteins, 328
dendrites, 131, 215
columnar, 212, 215
dendrites (neurons), 466
dendritic growth, 129, 131, 151
Denmark, 420
Dennett, Daniel (1942–), 522
density, of matter, 3
density waves, 293
deoxyglucose, 497–8
deoxyhaemoglobin, 486
deoxyribonucleic acid see DNA
deoxyribose, 335
Derry, John (d.1952), 217
Descartes, René (1596–1650), 22–3, 362–3, 493, 509, 517
brain studies, 510–11
desmosomes, 374
Desulfovibrio spp. (bacteria), 389
detailed observations, 14
deterministic chaos, 428
deuterium, 156
Deutsch, Diana, 522
Devaux, Philippe, 303
developmental biology, 402, 403
devitrification, 85
Devonian, 426–7
de Vries, Hugo (1848–1935), 399
Dewar, J., 295
Dewar, M. J. S., 287
dextro-form, 277, 280
dextrose, 271
d’Her elle, Felix (1873–1949), 358–9
diabetes mellitus, 420
diacetylenes, distributed, 278
dialyis, 89
diamagnetism, 225, 241, 242
diaminobenzidine, 492
diamond(s), 164, 178, 264
applications, 170
covalent bonding, 66, 75
crystal structure, 99, 100
formation, 180
hardness, 75
heat conduction, 187
occurrence, 169–70
diatoms, 433
dicalcium silicate, 190
Β-dicalcium silicate, 189, 192
meta-dichlorobenzene, 275
ortho-dichlorobenzene, 275
para-dichlorobenzene, 275
dichloromethane, 269
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 443
Dickerson, Richard, 389
Dickinson, Anthony, 552
dicotyledonous plants, 443
dictatorships, 533
Dictyostelium discoideum (slime mold)
cell differentiation, 405, 406
classification, 369
Diehl, Renee, 111
dielectric constant, 141
diencephalon, 483
Diener, T. O., 360
diethyl ether, 271
structural formula, 266
diets, species differences, 303
differential permeability, 301
differentiation, 405
mechanisms, 385
sexual, 393
tissue, 401, 402, 407
see also cell differentiation
diffraction patterns, 100, 331
diffusion, 86–7, 123
ceramics, 185–7
early studies, 124–5
polymers, 315
vacancies, 136
digestive system, 282, 381
dihydrol, 141
dihydroquinone, structure, 388
diligence, 532
dimensional integrity, 135
4,4’-dimet hoxyazoxybenzene, 290
dimethyl ether, 277
dinosaurs, 425
fossils, 160
Dintzis, Howard, 351–2
dioctylphthalate, 320
Dionaea spp. (Venus flytraps), 441, 445
diorite, 167, 175
dipalmityl phosphotidyl choline, 302
Diplococcus pneumoniae (bacterium), 399–400
diploid, 395
diploid number, 397, 401
Dirac, Paul (1902–84), 225, 242
directional bonding, 48
director field, 301
directors, 292, 294, 300
disaccharides, 280, 281
disclination dipoles, 301
disclinations, 121, 130, 132, 296, 300, 301
twist, 132
wedge, 132
discoveries, accidental, 16, 17
discrete energy levels, 37, 234
disinfectants, 272
dislocation annihilation, 136
dislocation climb, 136
dislocation dipoles, 121
dislocation glide, 136
dislocation loops, 122
dislocation multiplication, 134
dislocations, 96, 118–23, 131, 213, 216, 237, 297
annealing, 125
ceramics, 185
characterization, 121
early studies, 118
edge-oriented, 124
glissile, 125
metallic glasses, 257, 259
metals, 214, 216–18, 219
microscopy studies, 123
motion, 118, 120, 134–5, 215, 220
partial, 121, 214
photomicrographs, 122
screw-oriented, 124
sessile, 125
slip planes, 120, 125
thermally activated removal, 125
dislocation sources, 214
dislocation tangles, 122, 132, 214, 216
disperse phase, 89
gases, 90
dispersion, 95, 250, 253
dispersion forces, 295
dispersion media, 89–90
dispersive attractions, 69
dispirations, 133
display devices, 297–300
dissociation, water molecules, 142–3
distemperations, 133
distractions, 130, 133
disulfide bonds, 318, 485
disulfide bridges, 326, 327, 330
diuretics, 491
Dixon, Henry (1869–1953), 447
dizygotic twins, 543
Djurab Desert (Tchad), 514
DNA, 282, 335, 422–4, 505
and genetic code, 341–6
genetic flow, 428
length, 356–7
localization, 335–6, 372
models, 342–4
mutations, 351
in nuclei, 371
repair rate, 429
replication, 341
selfish, 422–4
staining, 337
structure, 336
in viruses, 323
DNA polymerase, 363, 365
DNA–RNA hybrids, 346
Döbler, J., 487
Dobson, Christopher, 331
Doherty, Paul, 417–18
dolerite, 167, 175
Doll, R., 236
dolomite, 169
calcined, 209
dominant characteristics, 393
Domrémy (France), 526
donor levels, 230
donors, 227, 251–2, 284, 288
electron, 147
ion, 143
Donovan, P., 260
dopamine, 489, 502
doping, 230, 251
amorphous semiconductors, 252
Doppler, Christian (1803–53), 22
Doppler effect, 22
Dorset (UK), 188
double bonds, 64, 269–70
Double, David, 194
double helix, 336, 343, 346, 361
double refraction, 169
Douglas fir, 438, 441–2
Down’s syndrome, 394
Drake, Edwin Laurentine (1819–80), 177
dreaming, 539–41
state, 504
Dreyer, William, 430
Dreyfus, Camille, 309
Dreyfus, Henri, 309
Driesch, Hans (1867–1941), 408, 411–12
drift mobility, 253
drive, concept of, 529
Drosera spp. (sundews), 441, 445
Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
eye colour, 413
homeobox genes, 410–11, 415
salivary glands, 407
sequencing, 365
Drude, Paul (1863–1906), 224
Drude–Lorentz theory, 224, 225
drum skins
harmonics, 35, 47
nodes, 35, 47
Dr West’s Miracle Tuft Tooth Brush, 310
Dryden, John (1631–1700), 53
Dryopithecus spp. (fossil apes), 513
d states, 49–50
dualism, 22–3, 517, 521
ducere,136
Duchamp, Marcel (1887–1968), 542
duck-billed platypus, 541, 553
ductile, 185
ductile–brittle transition, 220
ductile fractures, 136–7
ductile materials, 117
ductile ruptures, 133, 136–7, 185, 218, 219–20
metallic glasses, 259–60
ductility, gold, 202
Dulong, Pierre (1785–1838), 112
Dumas, Jean (1800–84), 281
dura matter, 483
Dussoix, Daisy, 361
Dustin, Pierre, 398
Dutch oil, 270
Dutrochet, Henri (1776–1847), 367
Duwez, Pol, 256
dyeing, 273
dyes, 271, 273, 337
dynamic scattering displays, 297–300
dynamite, 62, 87
dynamos, 16
Earth
age of, 154
axis of rotation, 15
composition, 156, 462
diameter, 12
flat, 12
formation, 157
life on, 158
magnetic field, 16, 222
and Moon formation, 4–5
rotation, 48
solid core, 157
space vehicle orbits, 58
speed, 17, 18
orbital, 5
relative to Universe, 5
spherical, 12
structure, 157–8
velocity, 18
earthquakes, 7, 157, 159, 161
Earth’s crust, 154–5
composition, 161
formation, 156
minerals, 164
Ebashi, Setsuro, 465
Eberhardt, W. H., 286
ebonite, 309, 318
Eccles, John, 503, 533
Echenius esculentus (sea-urchin), 411–12
Echinosphaerium nucleofilum (heliozoan), axoneme structure, 374
echoes, 95
eclipses, 5, 15
lunar, 10
solar, 9
total, 5
eclogite, 180
ecology, 404
Eco P1, 352
ectoderms, 412
Edelman, Gerald, 418
edge-oriented dislocations, 124
Edidin, Michael, 303
Edström, Jan-Erik, 407
Edwards, Sam (1928–), 315, 315
Edward VII (1841–1910), 178
EEG (electroencephalogram), 503–4, 506
efference, 524–5
efference copies, 524, 528–9, 545
eggs
denaturation, 328–9
fertilization, 368
egg–sperm fusion, 404–5
Egypt, 12, 14, 172
see also Ancient Egyptians
Ehrenfest, Paul (1880–1933), 59
Ehrlich, Paul, 416–17, 420
Ehrlich theory, 416–17
Eicken, Ingrid, 358
E. I. Du Pont de Nemours Company, 312
Eigen, Manfred (1927–), 143, 361, 364
Eigsti, O. J., 398
Einstein, Albert (1879–1955), 35–6, 42, 89, 112–13, 235, 538
general theory of relativity, 21
ground state theories, 40
photo-electric effect, 35
random walks, 314, 315
special theory of relativity, 1, 19, 20–1
eka-silicon, 27
Elaphe guttata (North-American corn snake), 533
elastic deformations, 95
elasticity, 95–6, 115
elastic limit, 96, 117, 213
elastic moduli, 95–6, 115
elastomers, 318
Elbe River, 174
electrical charge
discrete units, 29
generation, 222
electrical charges, moving, 31
electrical conductivity, 109
discovery, 222
mechanisms, 223–7
water, 148
see also superconductivity
electrical current, discovery, 222
electrical energy, 4
electrical insulators, ceramics, 187
electrical motors, 16
electrical repulsion, 31
electrical resistance, 284
and pressure, 224
electrical resistivity, 228, 232, 248
electric arcs, 92, 209
electric batteries, 146–8, 186
early, 222–3
and hydrolysis, 148–50
electric dipoles, 68–70
electricity
importance of, 222
and magnetism, 16, 20, 223
static, 222
electric motors, 239
electrochemical force, 390–2
electrochemical potentials, 146
electrochemical series, 146, 147
electrode potentials, 147, 148
electrodes, 147–8
electrodiffusion, 470
electroencephalogram (EEG), 503–4, 506
electrolysis, 147–50, 223, 235
definition, 148
laws, 150
water, 148
electrolytes, 147, 148
electrolytic cells, 150–1
electromagnetic forces, 1
electromagnetic radiation, 33
law of, 32
velocity, 34
electromagnetic spectrum, 16–17, 33, 250
electromagnetic waves, 16
spectra, 36
speed of, 18
theories, 224
electromagnetism, discovery, 16
electromotive series, 146
electron acceptors, 147
electron affinities, 59–63, 65, 74, 76
electron carriers, 381, 387–8
electron configuration, 50
and periodic table, 52, 57–8
electron delocalization, 278
electron diffraction patterns, 110–11
electron donors, 147
electron dot notation see Lewis notation
electronegative atoms, 60, 65, 66
electronegative elements, 148
electronegativities, 60, 65–6, 75, 109, 146, 184
electron holes, 186
electronics, solid state, 46
electronic structure, atoms, 47
electron localization, 279
electron microscopy, 46, 211–12, 302, 350, 359
cell studies, 373, 374, 389
chloroplast studies, 451
defect studies, 132
dislocation studies, 123
DNA studies, 341
see also scanning electron microscopy; transmission electron microscopy
electron orbitals, hybridization, 74
electron probability density, 37
electron promotion, 73, 264
electrons, 17, 25–52
average free path, 251
charges, 47, 50
conduction, 187
discovery, 29, 223
early studies, 29–30
and electrical conductivity, 223–7
in electrolysis, 148–50
energy, 38
energy levels, 48–50
degenerate, 49
free, 224
frictionless, 232
lone, 152
orbits, 32
uncertainty, 37–8
origin of term, 150
and photographic process, 237
probability clouds, 47–8
quantum orbits, 57
radiant energy, 31
shells, 50
valence, 66, 284
electron spin, 48–50
electron states, localized, 230
electron transfer, 65
electron transport, 392
system, 390
electron transporter chain, 442
electron traps, 251–2
electron tunnelling, 236, 390
electron volt, 58
electron wave intensity, 74
electron waves, 225, 236
free, 226–7
electropositive atoms, 60, 65, 66
electropositivity
elements, 164
metals, 224
electrostatic attraction, 65
electrostatic forces, 38
elementary particles, 1, 39–42
motions, 17
elements, 25
abundance, 156
atomic masses, 44
boiling points, 90
classification, 98
early, 78
commonest, 154
discovery, 25–7
electronegative, 164
electropositive, 164
formation, 155–6, 157
melting points, 90
symbols, 26, 27
transition, 241, 254
transmutation, 39, 137
see also periodic table
Elford, William, 358
Eliot, Thomas Stearns (1888–1965), The Hollow Men (1925), 82
Elizabeth II (1926–), 178
Ellermann, V., 428
Ellesmere Island (Canada), 418
Embden, Gustav (1874–1933), 381
Embden–Meyerhof pathway, 382, 385
embryogenesis, 411
embryology, 403–5
embryos
development, 414–15
regulation, 411–12
separation, 411
emerald, 166, 234
emergent properties, 500
Emerson, Robert (1903–59), 450, 451
Emerson effect, 451
emission, 234, 235–8
spontaneous, 238
stimulated, 235
emitter, 231
Empedocles (c.490–430 BC), 53
emulsifying agents, 91
emulsions, 90–1
enantiomers, 277
enchanted loom, 473, 549
endocranial volume, 513
endocrine glands, 408
endocrine system, 494
endoderms, 412
endoplasmic reticulum, 371, 372, 438–9
rough, 371, 372, 374
endorphins, 492, 503
endosperm tissue, 458
energy, 1, 4
binding, 42–3
chemical, 4
conservation of, 79
definition, 54
electrical, 4
equation, 21
Fermi, 225–6, 227
irreversibly degraded, 81, 82
and mass, 21
and matter, 35–6
nuclear, 4
solar, 235, 433
sources, 433
thermal, 4, 85, 225–6, 245
and work, 80
zero-point, 83
see also free energy; kinetic energy; potential energy; radiant energy
energy bands, 226, 234
energy barriers, 55, 56, 84–5, 87, 124, 245, 377
energy change, and defects, 133–4
energy gaps, 233, 251
energy levels, 238
degenerate, 254
discrete, 37, 234
localized, 230
quantized, 251
energy of motion, and heat, 83
energy resources, finite, 23
energy states, 45, 46
energy storage, in crystals, 137–8
Engelhardt, Vladimir (1894–1984), 372, 461
Engels, Friedrich (1820–95), 226
engines, 78–9
English National Adult Reading Test, 543
Leu-enkephalin, 503
Met-enkephalin, 503
enkephalins, 492, 503
entangled polymers, 316
entropy, 316, 363
alkanes, 269
concept of, 79–82
and free energy, 79
interpretations, 80
residual, 152
and Universe, 82
entropy change, and defects, 133–4
enzymes, 88, 92, 271, 322, 335, 492
allosteric, 354
cleavage, 361–2
digestive activity, 333–5
origin of term, 353
poisoned, 355
restriction, 352, 355, 361, 422
roles, 333, 353–5, 381
structure, three-dimensional, 355
substrates, 353, 355–6
epidermis, plants, 436
epidote, 166
epigenesis, 403
epileptic convulsions, 496
epinephrine see adrenaline
episodic memory, 540
epithelial cells, 374
epoch of last scattering, 16
epoxy resins, 318
Epstein–Barr virus, 365
equator, 15
equilibrium, 55, 82
reactions, 143
stable, 55
unstable, 55
equinoxes, 15
equivalent weight, 150
Eratothenes (276–194 BC), 12
Eridanus, 6
erosion, 158
erythrocytes, 376, 392, 476, 484
labeled, 498
life span, 429
membranes, 294, 301–2
Escherichia coli (bacterium), 401
amino citric acid, 350
bacteriophage effects, 401
Β-carboxyaspartic acid, 350
cell walls, 376
conjugation, 401
DNA, 356, 361
lactose, 356
mRNA studies, 345–6
restriction enzymes, 352
sequencing, 362, 365
transposable genetic elements, 424
virus studies, 359
Escherich, Theodor (1857–1911), 350
Escher, Maurits (1898–1972), 107, 112
Prentententoonstelling, 130
Eschner, J., 504
essential amino acids, 324
esterification, 273–5
esters, 273–5
etching, 130
grain boundaries, 132
meteorites, 209, 210–12
etch pits, 109
ethane, 267, 270
structural formula, 263
structure, 72
ethanolamine, structure, 298
ethene, 265
ethers, 266, 271
ethyl acetate, 274
ethyl alcohol, 266, 271, 277, 375
applications, 271
ethyl p-azoxycinnamate, structure, 290
ethylene, 270, 287
structural formula, 265
ethylene dichloride, 270
ethyl sulfate, 273
etiolation, 444
Etruscans, cement making, 186, 188
ettringite, 190, 191, 192–3, 196
Eucycliophora, 420
Euglena gracilis (euglenid), classification, 369
eukaryotes, 339, 353, 371, 398, 421–2
Euler, Leonhard (1707–83), 276
Euphrates River, 171
Europe, 174
European Southern Observatory, 8
Very Large Telescope (Chile), 6, 11
Eusthenopteron spp. (fossil fish), 425
eutectic alloys, 220
eutectic points, 211
Eutheria, 513
Evans, M. G., 287
evaporation, latent heats of, 94
evolution, 303
brain, 512
consciousness, 552–3
humans, 425, 513–14
issues, 424–7, 550–1
processes, 392–3
evolutionary trees, 421
Ewing, James (1855–1935), 116–17, 217
exafference, 524, 525
exchange force, 242
excitation, 235–8
excitatory neurotransmitters, 473
excited state, 31–2, 223
excitory synapses, 500
exclusion principle see Pauli exclusion principle
exefference, 524
exocytosis, 373
exons, 412, 422
experiential centre, 506
experiments, 15
explanatory gap, 523, 538
explosions, 61–2, 87
explosives, 61–2
Expo ’67 (Montreal, Canada), 276
extensive quantities, 80
extinctions, 428
extrinsic semiconductors, 226, 227, 229–31
extrusions, 219, 250
Eyde, Sam (1866–1940), 92
eye colour, genetics, 413
eye movements, tracking, 547, 551
face-centred cubic (fcc) crystal structure, 96, 109, 117, 120–2, 127
deformation, 216
iron, 210, 212, 213
sodium chloride, 113
faces, digitized, 496
faceting, 131
FAD see flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
FADH2 see reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2)
Fagus sylvestris (beech), 451
Fairbairn, William (1789–1874), 190
Fairbank, W. M., 236
Faraday, Michael (1791–1867), 84, 91, 148, 150, 223, 279
magnetism studies, 241
Farbzentren, 235
Farbzentren see colour centres
Farnborough Air Show (UK), 217
fatigue, 217, 218–19
fatigue cracks, 219
fatigue failure, 137, 217
fatigue fracture, 134
fatigue life, 219
fats, 267, 279, 302, 491–2
human, 275
natural, 275–7
see also lipids
fatty-acid chains, 302
fatty-acid oxidation, 385
fatty-acid residues, 275
fatty acids, 144, 269, 270, 273–7, 274, 382, 491–2
composition profiles, 303
Fawcett, Eric, 312
fcc crystal structure see face-centred cubic (fcc) crystal structure
F-centres, 235
FDs (Frenkel defects), 126
Fedorov, Evgraph, 107
feedback, 528–9
anticipated, 527, 529–31
in brain studies, 537–8
mechanisms, 492
positive, 468
sensory, 523–4, 532
FEF (frontal eye field), 499
Feigenbaum, Mitchell, 428
Feinstein, Bertram, 537
feldspars, 173, 180, 197
abundance, 168
alkali, 167
orthoclase, 167, 172, 174–5
plagioclase, 167–8, 172, 173, 174–6
in sands, 176
Felleman, Daniel, 499
Fergason, J. L., 296
fermentation, 266
process, 271, 381–2
Fermi, Enrico (1901–54), 46, 225
Fermi–Dirac hierarchy, 226
Fermi–Dirac statistical distribution, 241
Fermi energy, 225–6, 227
Fermi level, 226, 229, 233, 239, 251
Fermi surface, 229
Fernández-Morán, Humberto (1924–99), 389
ferredoxin, 435, 450
ferric chloride, 145, 146
ferric compounds, 199–20
valences, 64–5
ferric hydroxide, 151
ferric ions, 151
ferrimagnetism, 242
ferrimagnets, 242
ferrite, 188, 191, 192, 211, 212, 214
reactions, with water, 195
ferrite phase, 190
ferrohaemoglobin, 484
ferromagnesium minerals, 197
ferromagnetic glasses, 259
coercivity, 259
hysteresis losses, 259
magnetostriction, 259
permeability, 259
saturation magnetization, 259
ferromagnetic materials, 242, 243
ferromagnetism, 239–42, 259
Bloch walls, 242–3
metallic glasses, 259
ferromagnets, applications, 243
ferroprotoporphyrin, 477
ferrous compounds, valences, 64–5
Ferscht, Alan, 331
fertilization
cell fusion, 394
eggs, 368
fetus, 412
Feulgen, Robert (1884–1955), 336
Fibonacci series, 111
fibre cells, 437
fibre composites, 220
fibre glass see glass fibres
fibres, 318
artificial, 307
carbon, 64
glass, 116, 257
muscle, 460–1
natural, 438
sclerenchyma, 444
unit, 358
fibrils, 194, 460–1, 463, 487
fibroblasts, 487
fibrocytes, 487
Fick, Adolf (1829–1901), 86–7
Fick’s law, 87, 124
fictive temperature, glasses, 247–8
field-ion microscopy, 128, 212, 260
filaments, 461
filopodia, 413
Finbow, Malcolm, 409
Finch, John, 357, 359
Finch, J. T., 487
fingerprints, 132
Finney, John, 84, 256, 331
fir cones, 458
firebrick, 187
fires, early use of, 12
fireworks, 62
firing, 197
bricks, 199
ceramics, 196
firmament, 2
first harmonic, 34–5
first law of thermodynamics, 79
Fischer, Emil (1852–1919), 281, 283, 324, 354
fish
brain, 512
fossils, 425–6
fission
binary, 395
see also nuclear fission
fission fragments, 137
flagella, 433
flagellum, 374
flame test, 25, 31–2
Flammarion, Camille (1842–1925), L’Atmosph ère (1888), 2
flash photolysis, 143
Flavell, Richard, 422
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), 381
structure, 387
flavin mononucleotide (FMN), 387
binding, 386
flavoprotein, 384, 386
flax, 438
Fleming, Alexander (1881–1955), 349, 355
Flemming, Walther (1843–1905), 397
flint, 168, 177
flint glasses, 253
float baths, 249–50
flocculation, 198
floods, 7
Flores (Indonesia), 514
Florida (USA), 427
Flory, Paul (1910–85), 310
Flourens, Marie-Jean-Pierre (1794–1867), 494–5
Fludd, Robert (1574–1637), 509–10
fluidity, 91
fluid mosaic model, 304
fluids, 85
viscous, 92
Fluon, 312
fluorapatite, 488–90
fluorescence, 28, 161, 270
fluoridation, 491
fluoride, 168
fluorine, 184
sigma bonds, 71
fluorine molecules
covalent bonding, 70
energy, 75
fluorite, 170, 171
fluorspar, 170
fluxes, 199, 208
fluxing ions, 247, 249
FMN see flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
fMRI see functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
foams, 90
solid, 91–2
fogs, 90
Folstein, Susan, 543
fool’s gold, 170
foot-and-mouth disease, 358
forbidden bands, 227
force fields, 32
forces, 9
centrifugal, 4
definition, 54–5
electromagnetic, 1
electrostatic, 38
fundamental, 1
gravitational, 1, 4, 5, 32
inter-nucleon, 42
and particles, 45–6
strong nuclear, 1
weak nuclear, 1
see also interatomic forces
forges, 203
forgetting, 504
forging, 205–6, 216
formaldehyde, 266, 272, 310
structural formula, 267
formalin, 272
formica, 273
formic acid, 273
structural formula, 267
Forth Bridge (Scotland), 208, 209
fossil fuels, 177
natural gas, 177, 179
see also coal; oils; petroleum
fossils, 160, 161–4, 425–6
foundries, 215
fovea, 479
Fowler, Lorenzo (1811–96), 520
Fowler, Orson (1809–87), 520
Fowler, Ralph (1889–1944), 141, 152, 226
fractionation, 172
fracture failure, 136–7
fractures
brittle, 133, 136–7
and defects, 136–7
ductile, 136–7
intergranular, 136
metals, 218, 219–20
fracture stress, 64
Fraenkel-Conrat, Heinz (1910–99), 359
frames of reference, 21
France, 514, 526
Franck, James (1882–1964), 59
Frank, Charles (1911–98), 132, 134, 296
Franklin, Benjamin (1706–90), 222
Franklin, Rosalind (1920–58), 336, 341, 359
Franklin (New Jersey, USA), 161
franklinite, 161
Frank–Read dislocation sources, 134–5, 136
Fraser, Claire, 365
Frauenfelder, Hans, 331
Frederikshavn (Denmark), 420
freedom
degrees of, 128
humans, 551
free electrons, 224
free electron waves, 226–7
free energy, 82, 84, 85, 87, 125, 252
alkanes, 269
change, 88
early studies, 81
and entropy, 79
and interfacial defects, 131–2
free energy barriers, 85, 143
Freeman, Walter (1895–1972), 521
free surfaces, 127, 131–2
freezing points, 245
freezing temperature, 84–5
glasses, 247
French Academy of Sciences, 363
Frenkel, Albert, 450
Frenkel, Yakov (1894–1952), 84, 93, 124, 242
Frenkel defects (FDs), 126
Freshwater (Isle of Wight), 160
friction, 55, 75, 80
Friedel, Edmond (1895–1972), 290
Friedel, Georges (1865–1933), 291–2, 294, 296
Friedel, Jacques, 296
Friedrich, Walter (1883–1968), 100, 454
Frieman, Stephen, 249
fringed micelles
structure, 320
texture, 439–41
Frisch, Karl Ritter von (1886–1982), 519
Frisch, Otto (1904–79), 43
Frith, Christopher, 525, 526
Fritillaria imperialis (crown imperial), embryo sacs, 457
Fritzsche, Hellmut, 252
frogs, and binding problem, 535
frog’s leg muscle experiments, 222, 223, 465–6, 493–4
frontal eye field (FEF), 499
frontal lobe, 483
frontier orbitals, 288
fructose, 271, 280, 381, 440
fruit, 458
fruiting bodies, 405, 406
fruit sugar, 271
Frye, David, 303
f states, 49–50
fucose, 440
fudge, 85
Fukui, Kenichi (1918–98), 287–8
fullerenes, 276
Fuller, Richard Buckminster (1895–1983), 276
fumaric acid, 277
fumaroles, 164
fumes, 90
Funch, Peter, 420
functionality, 310
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 498, 501
brain oxygenation level dependent, 531
intelligence studies, 542–3
fundamental forces, 1
fundamentals (sound), 34
fungi, 433
Funk, Casimir (1884–1967), 283
furnaces
blast, 205, 206
reverberatory, 206–7
see also Bessemer converters
Furshpan, Edwin, 408
fusible materials, 54
GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid), 473, 490
gabbro, 167, 175
Gabor, Denis (1900–79), 240
Gadolin, Axel (1828–92), 107
Gage, Phineas (1823–60), 516–17, 518
galactose, 280, 441
structure, 281
Β-galactosidase, 352, 356
galacturonic acid, 440
Galalith, 309–10
galaxies, 2, 8, 10, 11, 550
rotation, 5
size of, 3
spiral, 2, 6
Galen (129–c.216), 508
galena, 170, 204
Galilei, Galileo (1564–1642), 15, 21, 80, 538
Gall, Franz (1758–1828), 520
galvanic corrosion, 147, 147
Galvani, Luigi (1737–98), 147, 222, 223, 239, 465–6, 493–4
galvanizing, 151
gamete cells, 405
gametes, 396, 397–8, 458
gametophytes, 458
gamma rays, 16, 31, 34, 35, 41
blood flow studies, 498
Gamow, George (1904–68), 16, 17, 350, 351
ganglia, 501
Gannon, Frank, 422
gap junctions, 408–9
garnet, 168–9, 180
garnets, 166
Garnier, Tony (1869–1948), Une cité industrielle (1918), 190
gases, 86
atoms in, 54, 56–7
condensation, 57
disperse phase, 90
entropy, 80
liquefaction, 84
thermal motion, 82
see also inert gases
gas–liquid transition, 232
gasoline, 177, 268
see also petroleum
gastrula, 412
gastrulation, 412
Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis (1778–1850), 53–4
Geake, John, 543
Geiger, Hans (1882–1945), 31
gelatin, 91, 488
Geldard, Frank, 546
gels, 91
autoradiographic, 362
lyophilic, 91
lyophobic, 91
gems, 234
gene codes, 342
gene expression, 351
gene knockout method, 415
gene linkage, 393
gene number, 365
gene pool, 424
general theory of relativity, 21
genes, 393, 398–9
expression, 407
homeobox, 410–11, 415–16
jumping, 424
regulator, 356
split, 422
structural, 356
genetic code, 339, 352–3
and DNA, 341–6
mitochondria, 372
genetic engineering, 361
genetic fingerprinting, 363–4
genetic message, 341, 343–4
genetics, 82, 392–402
organisms, 415–16
genetic variation, 414
gene transcription, 407–8
Gennes, Pierre-Gilles de (1932–2007), 295, 315, 316
genomes, 364–5
human, 365
genotype, 393
geocentrism, 2, 12–13
geological time scale, 162–3
geology, 160
geometrical isomerism, 313, 314–15
geotropism, 444
germanium, 27
Germany, 172, 513
germ cells, 396, 397–8, 411–12, 429
Germer, Lester (1896–1971), 35
gestation periods, 412
Giaever, Ivar (1929–), 236
giant axons, 467
Gibberella fujikuroi (fungus), 448
gibberellic acid, 443
gibberellins, 448
gibbons, 513
Gibbs, Josiah Willard (1839–1903), 81, 82
Gibson, James (1904–79), 521
Gibson, Reginald, 312
Gilbert, Walter (1932–), 356, 362, 364, 422
Gilbert, William (1544–1603), De Magnete (1600), 222, 239
Gilbert, William S. (1836–1911), 25
Gilman, John, 185
glacial flow, 153
glands, 474
glass-ceramics, 248
glass–crystal transition, 85
glasses, 84, 85, 101, 141, 173, 245–60
aluminosilicate, 248
annealing point, 248
borosilicate, 248, 254
colouration, 253–5
colourless, 253–4
crown, 253
crystal, 246
early, 245, 246
fabrication processes, 248
fictive temperature, 247–8
flint, 253
freezing temperature, 247
lead-silicate, 248
line defects, 121
manufacture, 188, 249–50
melting, 85
metastable state, 86
oxide, 245
photochromic, 255
plate, 249–50
potash-silica, 254
properties
electrical, 251–3
optical, 250–1
quenching, 255–6
radiation absorption, 253
refractive indices, 248, 250–1, 253
silicate, 257
soda-lime–silica, 248, 254
softening point, 248
stained, 254
strain point, 248
structural chemistry, 248–9
structure, 247–8
surface rupture, 249
transparency, 250
viscosity, 245
window, 184, 249
working point, 248
see also ferromagnetic glasses; metallic glasses
glass fibres, 116, 248, 257
glass formers, 245
glass–liquid transition, 85, 91
glass making, 249–50
glass temperature, 247
glass wool, 248, 250
glassy state, 141, 260
and covalent bonds, 245
X-ray diffraction studies, 246, 247
glaucoma, 473
glazes, 196
Glees, P., 504
glial cells, 501, 502
glide, 125, 213
dislocation, 136
glide operations, 107, 108, 125
glide systems, 216
glissile dislocations, 125
globin, 484
γ-globulins, 418
glossopetrae, 160
glucose, 271, 280
dextro-glucose, 281
laevo-glucose, 281
glucose, 377, 381, 383, 441
metabolism, 382
in plants, 435, 442, 454–6
in respiration, 375
structure, 281
glucose 6-phosphate, 383
glutamate, 473, 490
glutamic acid, 325
glutamine, 325
glutaraldehyde, 376
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, 382–3
glycerides, 274
glycerine, 275
glycerol, 275, 277
structure, 274
glycine, 325, 487–8
glycogen, 282
structure, 281
glycolipids, 299, 302, 375, 414
glycolitic pathway, 382–3
glycolysis, 378, 381–2, 454
glycoproteins, 375, 414
glycosidic link, 281
glycosidic linkages, 280, 349
glycosyl transferase, 414
Gmelin, Leopold (1788–1853), Handbook of Chemistry (1817–19), 262
gneiss, 168, 180
Goethe, Wolfgang (1749–1832), 362
Gold, Thomas (1920–2004), 1
gold, 54, 146, 164
applications, 201
colour, 239
crystalloid, 102
crystals, 103
ductility, 202
nuggets, 210
occurrence, 169
gold atoms, structure, 47
Goldberg, N., 295
gold chloride, 91
golden section, 110
Gold Rush (1849), 169
Goldschmidt, Richard (1878–1958), 501
gold–silver alloys, 126
gold sols, 91
Golgi, Camillo (1843–1926), 372, 466, 472
Golgi apparatus, 439
Golgi body, 371, 374, 438
discovery, 372
Goltz, Friedrich (1834–1902), 504
Gondwana, 159, 161
Goodenough, David, 408–9
Goodman, Colin, 258
Goodyear, Charles (1800–60), 308
Goodyear, Nelson, 309
gorillas, 423, 513
Gorter, E., 301
Gorter–Grendel lipid bilayer, 301
Gosling, Raymond (1926–), 341
Goudsmit, Samuel (1902–78), 48
graft copolymers, 311
Graham, Thomas (1805–69), 88–9
grain boundaries, 127, 128–31, 133–4, 135, 138, 320
ceramics, 185, 187
etching, 132
liquid crystals, 297
low-angle, 185
metals, 212, 213, 214, 215
grain boundary embrittlement, 136
grains, 128–30, 210
aggregates, 128
pollen, 458
starch, 451
grain size, 131
Gram, Christian (1853–1938), 376
Gram-negative bacteria, 376
Gram-positive bacteria, 376
grana, 451, 454
Grandjean, F., 295, 296
granite, 167, 168, 173, 174–5
granophyre, 173, 175
granulocytes, 417
grape sugar, 271
graphene, 276
graphite, 46, 164, 180, 213
applications, 170
covalent bonding, 75
crystals, 138
crystal structure, 99, 100
nodules, 214
occurrence, 169–70
grasses, 458
Grätzel, Michael, 456
Graves, Robert (1895–1985), 508
gravitational attraction, 31
gravitational forces, 1, 4, 5, 32
gravitational red shift, 22
gravity, 5–6, 10
and acceleration, 21
Graybiel, Ann, 545–6
gray cast iron, 213–14
Gray, Stephen (1666–1736), 222
graywackes, 176
greases, 273
Great Pyramid (Egypt), 110
Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA), 176–7
Greece, 170, 184
see also Ancient Greeks
Green, David, 389
Green, Michael, 418
green bricks, 199
Greengard, Paul, 505
Greenland, 149, 175
Grendel, F., 301
Grest, Gary, 84, 93
grey matter, 24, 485, 510–11
Griffith, Alan (1893–1963), 116, 117, 257
Griffith, Frederick (1879–1941), 400
Griffith cracks, 185, 196, 220
Griffith criterion, 136, 137, 185, 219
Grimm, Uwe, 111
Gross, Hans, 360
grossular, 166
ground state, 45, 48, 223
growth factor, 355
growth hormones, 360
plants, 443
growth spirals, 123
Grunberg-Mango, Marianne, 352
Grüneisen, Eduard (1877–1949), 114, 224
Guajacum officinale (lignum vitae), 458, 458
guanine, 335, 342, 343, 346
structure, 282
Guayana (Venezuela), 427
Gubanov, I. A., 259
guided mode, 528
Guinness Book of World Records (1963), 536
guitar strings, vibrations, 34–5
gulose, 280
gun-cotton, 309
gun metal, 219
gunpowder, 61–2
Gurney, Ronald, 235, 237
Gusella, James, 364
gustation, 477
gustatory mode, 535
gutta-percha, 313, 314–15
Gymnospermae, 433, 437, 458
gypsum, 164, 170, 190, 191, 192–3, 194
Haber–Bosch process, 92
Haber, Fritz (1868–1934), 92
habituation, 505
Hadfield, Robert Abbott (1858–1940), 214
Haeckel, Ernst (1834–1919), 404, 421
Hae III, 352, 361
haem, 179, 389, 476, 477
haem a, structure, 388
haematite, 170, 203
haem groups, 334, 384, 476, 477, 484, 485
haemoglobin, 332, 354, 386, 392, 477, 483–4
mutations, 487
structure, 476, 485–6
haemoglobin molecules, 103
haemophilia, 400
Haemophilus aegyptius (bacterium), restriction enzymes, 352
Haemophilus influenzae (bacterium)
restriction endonuclease, 362
sequencing, 365
Hahn, Otto (1879–1968), 43, 46
haima,170
hair cells, 479
Haken, Hermann (1927–), 536
Hales, Stephen (1677–1761), 434
half–life see half-period value
half-period value, radioactive isotopes, 41, 46
halides, 164, 170–1
halite, 171
Hall, Benjamin D., 346
Hall, Cecil, 342
Hall, Charles (1863–1914), 207
Hall, Edwin Herbert (1855–1938), 225
Hall, Eric O., 135
Hall effect, 225, 226–7
anomalous, 231
Halley, Edmond (1656–1742), 10, 13, 14
Halley’s comet, 13, 14
Hall–Héroult process, 207
Hall–Petch relationship, 135
hallucinations, 504
hallucinogenics, 489, 502
Halobacterium halobium (bacterium), 433
halogens, 27
halteres, 410
Hameroff, Stuart, 546
Hammer, Claus, 149
Hansen, Peter, 543
Hanson, Jean (1919–73), 462, 464
haploid, 396
haploid number, 397
haptenic determinants, 417
haptens, 417
hardening, 132, 136
case-hardening processes, 214
cement, 190, 194–6
crystals, 134
iron, 214
see also work hardening
Harder, A., 283
hardness, 165, 167, 171
ceramics, 185
Hardwick, D., 218
hardwoods, 438
Hardy, M. W., 178
Harker, D., 285
Harlow, John (1819–1907), 516
harmonics, 34–5, 35, 47
Harrington, Marilyn, 363
Harris, William, 133
Hartline, Haldan (1903–83), 551
Hart, Ronald, 429
Hartsoeker, Nicolas (1656–1725), 54, 99, 408
Hartwell, Leland, 431
Harvard Medical School (USA), 516
Harvey, William (1578–1657), 476
Haselgrove, John, 465
Hassel, Odd (1897–1981), 286
Haurowitz, Felix, 486
haüynite, 171
Haüy, René Just (1743–1822), 98, 110
Hawking, Stephen (1942–), 1
Haworth, Walter Norman (1883–1950), 283
Hayflick, Leonard, 429–31
hcp (hexagonal close-packed) crystal structure, 109, 117, 120–2
head injuries, 508, 516
heart, 474
heat, 115
concept of, 80
and energy of motion, 83
sense of, 474
and work, 81
see also latent heat; specific heat
heat capacity, 112
heat conduction, 93–4, 115
ceramics, 187
Heath, James, 276
heavenly bodies
composition, 1–2
early studies, 9–16
motions, 4
heavy atom isomorphous replacement, 331–2, 485
heavy meromyosin, 457
Hebb, Donald (1904–85), 473, 495, 505
Hecht, Selig, 479
Hedges, J. M., 123
Hedges, John, 237
Hedricks, S. B., 444
Heidenreich, Robert, 128
Heilbrunn, L. V., 465
Heiles, Carl, 428
Hein, Alan, 495
Heisenberg, Werner (1901–76), 37, 38, 40, 242, 538
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 225, 390
Heitler, Walter (1904–81), 59
HeLa cells, 429
Held, Richard, 495
Helfrich, Wolfgang, 299
helical thickening, 438, 444
heliocentrism, 14
helium, 50, 232
abundance, 154
electron affinity, 74
formation, 156
Hellawell, Angus, 194
Helleborus spp. (Christmas roses), 450
Helmholtz, Hermann von (1821–94), 79, 81, 82, 146, 466, 479
Helmholtz double layer, 147
helper T-cells, 417
hemicellulose, 438, 444, 459
in plant cell walls, 376
hemicelluloses, 441
hemp, 438
Hennebique, François (1842–1921), 190
Henon, Michael, 428
heptane, 268
structural formula, 263
herbaceous plants, 436, 458
herbicides, 443
hereditary message
and nucleic acids, 337
see also genetic code
heredity, 416
Hermann, Ludimar (1838–1914), 466, 551
Héroult, Paul (1863–1914), 207
herpes virus, 359
Herrick, James (1861–1954), 486–7
Herring, Conyers (1914–), 135–6
Herring–Nabarro creep, 136
Hershey, Alfred, 401
Hertz, Heinrich (1857–94), 16
Hessel, Johann (1796–1872), 107
Hess, Walter (1881–1973), 484
heteropolar bonding, 66, 67
heterotrophic bacteria, 368
heterotrophic organisms, 368
heterotrophs, 324, 433
Hevea brasiliensis (rubber tree), 307
Hewish, Dean, 357
hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure, 109, 117, 120–2
hexagonal system, 99
hexane, 268, 282
structural formula, 263
1,6-hexane diamine, 318
hexokinase, 382, 383
hexose sugars, 280
hexuronic acid, 283
Hibernia (ship), 219
high-carbon steels, 213
highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), 288
High Flux Isotope Reactor, 44
high-temperature superconductors, 233
Hilbersdorf (Germany), 172
Hildebrand, Joel (1881–1983), 83, 256
Hill, Archibald (1886–1977), 466
Hill, R., 313
Hill, Robert (1899–1991), 449, 451
Hill, W. E., 548
Hill reaction, 450, 452
hindbrain, 483
Hind III, 362
Hinduism, 154
hippocampus, 483, 484, 494, 506
Hippocrates (c.460–c.370 BC), 508
Hirsch, Peter (1925–), 123, 216
Hirs, Werner (1923–2000), 329
histology, 417
histones, 341, 354, 357, 407, 422, 505
Hitch, Graham, 529
Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945), 517
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), 359
Hoagland, Mahlon (1921–), 361
Hobson, J. Allan, 540
Hodgkin, Alan (1914–98), 467–8, 469, 470–1
Hodgkin, Dorothy, (née Crowfoot) (1910–94), 290, 331
Hoffmann, Friedrich (1818–90), 200
Hoffmann, Roald (1937–), 288
Hoffmann kilns, 20
Hofmann, A. W., 279
Holcomb, Henry, 539
holes, 230–1
interstitial, 210, 258
Holmes, Gordon (1876–1965), 496
Holmes, Kenneth, 464
holograms, 506
holography, 89, 240
Holst, Bruce, 427
Holst, Erich von (1908–62), 554
Holtzer, Alfred, 464
homeobox genes, 410–11, 415
homeodomains, 410
homeosis, 410
homeostasis, 528
homeotic genes, 415
homeotic transcription, 410
homeotic transformation, 415
Hominidae, 513
hominids, 513–14
Homo spp., 513
Homo erectus, 514
Homo erectus erectus (Java man), 514
Homo erectus pekinensis (Peking man), 514
Homo floresiensis, 514
Homo habilis, 513–14
Homo heidelbergensis, 515, 517
Homo sapiens, 424, 493, 551
chromosomes, 398
evolution, 513–14
see also humans
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Neanderthal), 420, 514
Homo sapiens sapiens (Cro-Magnon man), 514, 515, 517
homogeneous nucleation, 131
homogeneous state, 89
HOMO (highest occupied molecular orbital), 288
homologous series, 263, 267
homologues, 263
homolytic cleavage, 319
homopolar bonding, 66
homozygous transmission, mutations, 424
homunculus, 362, 403–4, 408, 493, 538
honeybees
behaviour, 519
movements, 531
honeycomb structures, 367
Honjo, Tasuku, 430
Hood, Leroy, 365
Hooke, Robert (1635–1703), 4, 19, 23, 57, 109, 538
Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth (1674), 9
botanical studies, 434
cell studies, 367
crystal studies, 96, 98, 99
deformation studies, 117
fossil studies, 160
Micrographia (1665), 9
silk studies, 307
Hooke’s law, 96
Hopetown (South Africa), 180
Hopfield, John (1933–), 390
Hopkins, Frederick (1861–1947), 283
hopolution, 424
Hoppe-Seyler, Felix (1825–95), 335
hormones, 299, 473, 492
discovery, 408
see also plant hormones
hornblende, 167, 172, 173, 174–5, 197
Horne, Robert, 123, 304, 359
hornfels, 180
horror autotoxicus, 420
horseradish peroxidase, 492
Hotchkiss, Rollin, 359
hot shortness, 205
hot working, 216
Howard, Anthony, 194
Howie, Archibald (1934–), 216
howler monkeys, 513
Hox genes, 411, 415–16
Hoyle, Fred (1915–2001), 1, 3
Hubble, Edwin (1889–1953), 22
Hubel, David, 493, 494, 495, 496–7
Huber, Robert (1937–), 452, 455
Hückel, Erich (1896–1980), 287
Huebner, Robert, 429
hues, primary, 481
Huffman, Donald, 276
Hughes, John, 503
Hull, Clark (1884-1952), 521
hulls, corrosion, 151–2
human capacity, 515
human fat, 275
human genome, 365
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 359
humans
brain, 512
chromosomes, 423
classification, 514
composition, 323, 462
evolution, 425, 513–14
freedom, 551
life span, 429
monetary value of, 323
see also Homo sapiens
Humfrey, J. C. W., 217
humming-birds, muscles, 465, 466
Humphrey, Nicholas (1943–), 515, 522
hunting, early, 7
Huntington, Hillard, 124-5, 232
Huntington’s disease, 364, 366
Huntsman, Benjamin (1704–76), 214
Hunt, Timothy, 431
Hurley, Susan, 521
Hurwitz, Jerard, 352, 363
Huxley, Aldous (1894-1963), 367
Huxley, Andrew (1917–), 462, 467–8, 469, 470, 471
Huxley, Hugh (1924–), 462, 463–4, 465
Huygens, Christiaan (1629–95), 30, 98, 99, 109
Hyatt, Isaiah, 308–9
Hyatt, John (1837–1920), 308–9
Hyatt, Thaddeus (1816–1901), 190
hybridization, 140, 141
electron orbitals, 74
hybrid orbitals, 69
hydra, 412–13
hydration, 194
hydration shells, 145, 469–70
hydrocarbons, 158, 177, 267–75
saturated, 263
unsaturated, 265
hydrochloric acid
covalent bonding, 70–1
dissociation, 145
molecular formula, 64
reactions, with zinc, 53
hydrogen, 88, 158
abundance, 154
discovery, 139
generation, 53
minimal valence, 64
valence, 64
hydrogen atoms, 28, 43
electron, 47
energy states, 45
nuclear fusion, 155–6
proton, 47
hydrogen bonding, 67, 70, 75, 153, 265
hydrogen bonds, 67, 141, 142, 268, 318, 439
depiction, 152
polypeptides, 326, 327–8
hydrogen–chlorine bonds, 53
hydrogen fluoride
covalent bonding, 67
energy, 75
sigma bonds, 71
hydrogen ion concentration, 143
hydrogen ions, 142–3, 144, 146, 149–50, 152
hydrogen molecules, 59
electron configuration, 57
energy, 75
hydrogen peroxide
decomposition, 87, 88
formula, 53
hydrogen radical, 71
hydrogen sulfide, 158, 389
hydrolysis, 145, 377
salts, 147–8
hydronium, 142, 273
hydronium ions, 144, 146
hydrophilic reactions, 269
hydrophobic reactions, 269
hydroquinone, 237
hydrosols, 91
hydroxides, 193
hydroxyapatite, 488
hydroxylase enzymes, 488
hydroxylation, 197–8
hydroxyl groups, 271
hydroxyl ions, 142–3, 144–5, 146, 151
in kaolinite, 195, 197, 198
in mica, 168
hydroxylysine, 488
hydroxyproline, 488
Hyneria spp. (fossil fish), 426–7
Hynerpeton spp. (tetrapods), 426–7
hyperspace, 85
configurational, 84
muscular, 532–3
hypothalamus, 494, 532
hypotheses, 528–9
hysteresis, 243
hysteresis losses, metallic glasses, 259
ice, 139
crystal structures, 99, 109, 150, 152
defects, 153
hydrogen bonding, 153
melting point, 78
under pressure, 149
ice ages, 174
ice cores, 149
Iceland, 166, 173
Iceland spar, 98, 277
ichthyosaurs, 160
Ichthyostega spp. (fossil tetrapods), 418, 425–6
ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries), 312, 313
identical twins, 411–12
idose, 280
ienai,148
igneous rocks, 157, 167, 168, 179–80
formation, 161, 171–6
ignes fatui, 268
Illinois (USA), 118, 190, 199
illite, 198, 199
illusions, 546–9
auditory, 522
optical, 551
scale, 522
imaginary planes, 292
immune response, 416
immune system
cellular components, 417
humoral components, 417
immunity, 416–22
adaptive, 420
immunoglobins, 414
immunoglobulin G, 418
immunoglobulins, classification, 418
impacts, 134
imperfect crystals, 116–38
imperfections, 233
Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), 312, 313
impossible figures, 542
impurities, 119, 131, 133, 134
effects, 126–7
interstitial, 126
substitutional, 126
impurity atoms, 123, 230
independent assortment, 393, 399
Mendel’s law, 396, 413
independent segregation, 396
indeterminacy principle, 538
India, 161, 180
indoleacetic acid, 443, 448
Indonesia, 514
induced-fit model, 354
induction, 14-15, 412
Industrial Revolution, 78–9, 206
industrial solvents, 272
inert gas atoms
energy states, 46
resonance effects, 69–70
inert gas compounds, chemical activity, 74
inert gases, 50, 57, 60
electron affinities, 74
inertia, 538
infants, movement, 544
information, active acquisition, 521
infrared radiation, 16, 34, 35
Ingenhousz, Jan (1730–99), 434
Ingram, Vernon (1924–2006), 486–7
Ingvar, David, 497
inheritance studies, 393–7, 399
see also genetics
inhibitory neurotransmitters, 473
inhibitory synapses, 500
Innis, Jeffrey, 415
inorganic crystalline solids, homogeneous, 164
inorganic oxides, 245
inosilicates, 166
inosine monophosphate, 378
Inoue, T., 343
Insecta, 487
insectivores, 442
insectivorous plants, 442, 445
insects
colours, 301
pheromones, 286
insect wings, liquid crystals in, 301
inside-out paradigm, 538, 545
insulators, 115, 222–44
ceramics, 187
crystalline, 251
mechanisms, 226–9
insulin, 330, 362
integral membrane proteins, 375
integrated circuits, 230
intelligence, 14, 542–3
and autism, 543
intensive quantities, 80
interatomic bonds, 114–15, 118, 184, 185
characteristics, 59
and ideal mechanical strength, 64
interatomic forces, 56, 78, 85, 113, 115, 143, 355
inter-band transitions, 253
intercellular regulation, 414
interfaces, 85
interfacial defects, 127–32
types of, 127
interference colours, 145
interference effects, 99–100, 109
interference fringes, 32–4
interference patterns, 18, 19, 30, 89
shifts, 20
interferon, 362, 417
intergranular cracks, 218
intergranular fracture, 136
intermediates, 249
internal reafference, 525
internal salts, 283
internal vibrations, 270
International Date Line, 133
International Style (architecture), 190
inter-nucleon forces, 42
interphase, 397
inter-species competition, 23
interstitial holes, 210, 258
interstitial impurities, 126
interstitials, 119, 124-6, 131, 137, 187
absorption, 125
intestines, bats, 371
intrinsic semiconductors, 226, 227, 228–9
introns, 412, 423
intrusions, 217, 219
invaginations, 374
inversions, 106
inversion walls, 300
invertase, 271, 353–4
ion channels, 468, 471
ion donors, 143
ion–electron interactions, 58–9
ion exchange, 197
ionic bonding, 65, 66, 67, 184
ionic crystals, 125–6
defects, 126
ionization, atoms, 47, 137
ionization energies, 59–63, 65, 74, 76, 223
ion pumps, 470–1
ions, 58, 126, 148
iron, 88, 157, 167
abundance, 154–5
composition, 212
corrosion, 187
cracks, 117
crystals, 145, 242
crystal structures, 96, 210
formation, 156
hardening, 214
melting point, 204
in meteorites, 175
ores, 170, 203, 206
smelting, 204
sponge, 204
structure, 54
transport, 389
see also cast iron; pig iron; wrought iron
α-iron, 211, 212
Δ-iron, 211, 212
γ-iron, 211, 212
Iron Age, 203, 204
Ironbridge (Shropshire, UK), 208
iron carbide, 211, 213
iron carbonates, 170
iron–carbon system, 133, 212–13, 214
phase diagrams, 211
iron hydroxides, 177
iron making, early, chemistry, 203
iron oxides, 88, 148, 157, 170, 173, 187
as catalysts, 92
formation, 203
magnetic, 239
magnetized, 242
removal, 207
iron phosphides, 205–6
iron sulfides, 205
irradiation damage, 137
Irwin, George Rankine (1907–98), 136
Isle of Skye (Scotland), 173
Isle of Wight, 160
isocitrate dehydrogenase, 353
isoelectric point, 355
isomerism, 271
geometrical, 313, 314–15
use of term, 277
isomers, 261, 263, 275
optical, 277, 277
see also stereoisomers
isotactic polymers, 311, 313
isotactic polypropylene, 319
isotopes, 25, 42, 149, 179
stable, 44-6
see also radioactive isotopes
Israelites, 493
Ivanovsky, Dmitri (1864–1920), 358
ivory, substitutes, 308–9
Jackson, David, 361
Jackson, John Hughlings (1835–1911), 496
Jacob, François (1920–), 345, 356
Jacobsen, Claus, 285
Jaklevic, Robert, 236
Jakobs, Daniel, 180
James, Ronald, 550
James, William (1842–1910), 525
jasper, 168
Java man, 514
Jaynes, Julian (1920–97), 23
The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1976), 522
Jeannerod, Marc, 521, 527
Jeans, James (1877–1946), 35
Jeffrey Mine (Canada), 166
Jeffreys, Alec (1950–), 364
Jenkins, Farish, Jr., 418
Jenner, Edward (1749–1823), 358
Jensen, Ernst Jørgen, 121
Jerne, Niels, 420
Jerome, Denis, 285
Jesus, 10, 13
Jia, Lianto, 427
Joan of Arc (1412–31), 526
Johnson, Samuel (1709–84), 528
Johnston, W. G., 185
Joliot-Curie, Frédéric (1900–1958), 45–6
Joliot-Curie, Irène (1897–1956), 45–6
Jones, Harry (1905–86), 229, 239
Jordan, Elke, 424
Jortner, Joshua, 390
Josephson, Brian (1940–), 236
Josephson effect, 236
Josephson junction, 236
Joule, James (1818–89), 4, 80
joules, 4, 80, 81
Julez, H., 505
jumping genes, 424
junction transistors, 232
Junge, Wolfgang, 390
Jupiter, 157
moons, 15
Jurassic, 160
jute, 438
Kacelnik, Alex, 552
Kalckar, Herman (1908–91), 372
Kalyanasundaram, Kuppuswamy, 456
Kalymnos (Greece), 184
Kamen, Ruben, 449
Kamerlingh-Onnes, Heike (1853–1926), 229, 232
Kandel, Eric (1929–), 495, 504
Kanizsa, Gaetano (1913–93), 550
Kanner, Leo, 543–4
Kanno, Yoshinobou, 408
Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804), 527
Kaoling (China), 198
kaolinite, 98, 168, 195, 197, 198, 199
kapok, 438
Karlin, Arthur, 472
Karman, Theodore von (1881–1963), 113
Karplus, Martin (1930–), 331
Kasper, J. S., 285
Katchalsky, Ephraim (1916–), 363
Kattanis, T. Z., 215
Katz, Bernard (1911–2003), 467, 471, 472, 473
Keilin, David (1887–1963), 389
Kekulé model, 275
Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich (1829–96), 275, 279, 283
Lehrbuch der Organische Chemie (1862), 272
Keller, Walter, 358
Kelvin scale, 80–1, 135, 256
Kendrew, John (1917–97), 334, 484–5
Kennedy, Eugene, 389
Kennedy, John F. (1917–63), 536
Kenya, 172, 514
Kepler, Johannes (1571–1630), 11, 14, 106
Harmonice Mundi (1619), 107
On the Six-Cornered Snowflake (1611), 151
keramos, 182
keratin, 331
α-keratin, 332
kerosene, 267
α-ketogluterate, 384
ketones, 266, 272, 280
ketoses, 280
Ketterle, Wolfgang (1957–), 40
Keweenaw (Michigan, USA), 157
Keynes, Richard (1919–), 468, 470–1
Khaldi, 491
Khorana, Har Gobind (1922–), 352
Kieffer, Barry, 398
kieselguhr, 62
killer T-cells, 417
killing, 208
Kilmer, Alfred Joyce (1886–1918), 459
Kimberley (South Africa), 178, 180
kimberlite, 178
kimberlite pipes, 178, 180
kinetic energy, 4, 32, 54, 55–6, 85, 112
and heat, 80
molecules, 57
kinetochores, 395, 396
King, Charles Glen (1896–1988), 283
Kingery, W. D., 199
Kingsbury, B., 371
Kipling, Rudyard (1865–1936), 201
Kirchhoff, Constantine, 440
Kirk, Robert, 523, 538
Kiruna (Sweden), 170
Kiwi, John, 456
Klein, Karin, 457
Klein, Marc, 504
Kléman, M., 296
Klement, William, 256
Klug, Aaron, 357, 358, 359
Klüver, Heinrich (1897–1979), 484
Knightia excelsa (New Zealand honeysuckle), 437
Knipping, Paul (1883–1935), 100, 454
Knoll, Max (1897–1969), 46
Knoop, Franz (1875–1946), 382
Knopf, Paul, 342
knowledge, consensus, 7–9
Koch, Tad, 350
Kodama, Ayako, 465
Kohonen, Teuvo, 496
Kok, Bessel (1918–79), 453
Koller, Theo, 358, 360
Kölliker, Rudolf von (1817–1905), 371
Kolomiets, B. T., 251
Kongsberg (Norway), 172
Kopecko, Dennis, 424
Kornberg, Arthur (1918–), 352
Kornberg, Roger (1947–), 357, 358
Koshland, Daniel, 354
Kossel, Albrecht (1853–1927), 335
Kosslyn, Stephen (1948–), 526–7, 538
Kosterlitz, Hans, 503
Krager⊘ (Norway), 166
Kramer, J., 256
Krätschmer, Wolfgang, 276
Krebs, Hans (1900–81), 382, 454
Krebs cycle, 382, 385, 454
Kristensen, Reinhardt (1948–), 420
Kristen, Willey Damgaard, 121
Kroto, Harold, 276
krypton, 137, 141
krypton atoms, energy states, 46
krystallos, 101
Kuffler, Stephen (1913–80), 551
Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, Doris (1922–), 121, 134
Kuhne, Wilhelm (1837–1900), 353
Kupka, K. D., 350
labelling, radioactive, 286, 498
Labrador (Canada), 172
labradorite, 168, 172, 174
lac repressor, 351, 356
lactate, 381, 383
lactic acid, 277, 277
structure, 277
lactose, 280, 281, 356
laevo-lactose, structure, 281
ladder polymers, 336, 343
laevo-form, 277, 280
Lagerkvist, Ulf, 352
lambda phage, 351
lambda repressor, 351
Lambe, John, 236
Lambot, Joseph-Louis (1814–87), 190
lamellae, 320
Landau, Lev (1908–68), 229, 243, 295
Landsteiner, Karl (1868–1943), 420, 476
Langan, Thomas, 505
Langevin, Paul (1872–1946), 241
Langmuir, Irving (1881–1957), 301
language, 528, 536–7, 539
and autism, 544–5
pre-conscious, 522
Lanza, Robert, 552
lapis lazuli, 171, 196
lard, 275
Large Magellanic Cloud, 10
Larmor, Joseph (1857–1942), 20
larnite, 189, 192
Larsson, Gunnar (1951–), 465
lasers, 235, 235, 240
Lashley, Karl, 505
Lassen, Niels (1926–97), 497, 501
last scattering, epoch of, 16
Late Devonian, 418
latent heat, 83, 86, 94
of crystallization, 131
latent heats of evaporation, 94
latent heats of melting, 94
laterite, 177
lattices
crystal, 87, 94
cubic, 119
regular, 113
space, 103, 104
see also Bravais lattices
lattice symmetry, 107, 112
lattice vibrations, 284
lattice waves, 114
Latvia, 427
Laue, Max von (1879–1960), 99–100, 101, 454
Laurasia, 159
Lauterbur, Paul (1929–2007), 498, 501
Lavoisier, Antoine (1743–94), 25–6, 139, 194, 261, 380
law of octaves, 27
laws of motion, 9, 20, 224
lazurite, 171
LCDs (liquid crystal displays), 297
leaching, 204
lead, 158
abundance, 155
creep, 215
industrial extraction, 204
melting point, 135, 215
ores, 170, 203, 204
lead–acid accumulators, 223
lead molybdate, 102
lead oxide, 248
lead-silicate glasses, 248
lead sulfide, 170
Leakey, Louis (1903–72), 513–14
Leakey, Richard (1944-), 424, 514
Leamy, H. J., 260
leather, tanning, 273
leaves, 445–6
structure, 451
le Bel, Joseph Achille (1847–1930), 277
le Chatelier, Henri-Louis (1850–1936), 147, 149, 194
le Chatelier principle, 147, 149
lecithin, 298
Leclanché cell, 223
LeClerc, Georges-Louis (1707–88), 159
Ledbetter, Myron, 373, 444–5
ledeburite, 211
Lederberg, Joshua (1925–), 360–1, 401, 420
Leder, Philip, 422, 430
Lehmann, Inge (1888–1993), 157
Lehmann, Otto (1855–1922), 290–1
Lehninger, Albert (1917–86), 389
Leith, Emmett (1927–), 240
Lemaître, Georges (1894-1966), 1
Lemery, Nicholas (1645–1715), Cours de Chyme (1685), 261
Lenard, Philipp (1862–1947), 30
Lenepveu, Jules-Eugène (1819–98), 526
length, contraction, 20
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), 5, 23, 160, 377, 461
brain theories, 482, 510
Mona Lisa, 547
Leonardo of Pisa (1175–1250), 111
Le Pennec, Jean-Paul, 422
leptotene, 396
leucine, 352
Leucippus (5th cent. BC), 25
leukemia, 428
leukocytes, 417, 476
see also lymphocytes
Levene, Phoebus (1869–1940), 335
Levi-Montalcini, Rita, 488
Levine, Dov, 111
Levine, Joseph, 523, 538
Levinthal, Cyrus (1922–90), 331
levitation, 231
Levitt, Michael (1947–), 331
levulose, 271
Lewis, Edward (1918–2004), 410–11
Lewis, Gilbert (1875–1946), 59, 71, 143–4
Lewis electron pair, 59, 286
Lewis notation, 71, 152, 319
Libby, Willard (1908–80), 42
Liberty Bell, 219
Libet, Benjamin (1916–), 531, 537–8, 548, 551
Li, Choh Hao, 503
Liepmann, Hugo (1863–1925), 495
life
early, 158
generation, 363–4
origins, 361
spontaneous generation, 362–3
life span, humans, 429
Lifshitz, Evgeny (1915–85), 243
light
deflection, 21
polarized, 277, 290
speed of, 15, 20, 21, 250, 253
visible, 16
wave nature of, 35
Lightfoot, John (1602–75), 154
lightning, 7, 222
light pulses, 19–20
light reaction, 449
light-sensitive units, 481
light spectra, stars, 21–2
light waves, 19–20, 46
amplitude, 74
early studies, 32–4
light-years, 15
lignins, 306, 438, 439, 444, 459
composition, 441
in plant cell walls, 376
lignite, 177
lignum vitae, 457, 458
limbic cortex, 483
limbic system, 494
limbs, differentiation, 405–7
lime, 186, 188, 190, 248, 249
slaked, 188
limestone, 161, 164, 165, 177, 179, 248
burnt, 189
and cement manufacture, 186
in iron production, 205, 206
limonite, 170
Lindemann, Frederick (1886–1957), 113
Lindgaard, Per-Anker, 331
Lind, James (1716–94), 283, 488
linear molecules, 270
linear polymers, 184, 311
line defects, 118, 132
characterization, 121
Linné, Carl von (1707–78), 419–20
Linnemann, E., 313
lipase, 381
lipid bilayer membrane, 291
lipid bilayers, 303, 304, 409
Gorter-Grendel, 301
lipid double layers, 294
lipid molecules
hydrophilic, 303
hydrophobic, 303
lipids, 274, 275–7, 301, 466
membrane, 299
neutral, 302
see also fats; glycolipids; phospholipids
lipid vesicles, 303
Lipmann, Fritz (1899–1986), 372, 380, 383
lipoic acid, 383–4
Lipolase, 333
liposomes, 304
Lipscomb, William, Jr. (1919–), 286
liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 297
liquid crystalline phases, discovery, 289–90
liquid crystals, 121, 265, 289–321
applications, 296–8
chemistry, 290
classification, 291–2
conformation, 295–6
disclinations, 130
lyotropic, 293
occurrence, 293–4
orientational defects, 132
thermotropic, 293
see also cholesteric liquid crystals; nematic liquid crystals; smectic liquid crystals
liquid crystal transitions, 294-5
liquid phase, 83
liquids, 85, 86
diffusion, 87
fluidity, 84
models, 83–4
naturally occurring, 139
supercooled, 85, 245
viscoelastic, 96
see also water
liquid state, 57, 77, 141
models, 256–8
liquid–vapour interface, 83
Lister, J. D., 295
lithium
atomic structure, 49–50
metallic bonding, 75
lithium fluoride, ionic bonding, 65
lithosphere, 161
litmus, 144
Little, William, 284
living cells, 294
Livoniana spp. (fossil tetrapods), 417, 427
localized bound states, 235
localized electron states, 230
localized energy levels, 230
localized wave states, 251
Locke, John (1632–1704), An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), 529
locomotion, 368
bacteria, 517–19
locus coeruleus, 483, 502
lodestone, 170, 222, 239
Loewenstein, Werner, 408
Loewi, Otto (1873–1961), 466
logistic mapping, 428
Lohmann, Karl (1898–1978), 372
Loligo spp. (squid), 467
London, Fritz (1900–54), 59, 236
London (UK), 219, 520
lone electrons, 152
lone-pair hybrids, 140
lone-pair orbitals, 141
longitudinal waves, 93, 94
long-range order, 110, 247, 257
long-term memory, 505
Longuet-Higgins, Hugh Christopher (1923–2004), 286, 505–6
Lonsdale, Kathleen (1903–71), 331
loops, 132
Lord, Kathy, 543
Lorentz, Hendrik (1853–1928), 20, 224
Lorentz contraction, 20
Lorentz transformation, 20
Los Testigos (Venezuela), 427
Lotka, Alfred (1880–1949), 361, 364
Louisiana (USA), 164
low-angle boundaries, 185
lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), 288
Lowey, Susan, 464
Lowry, Thomas Martin (1874–1936), 143
Lowy, Jack, 464
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 489, 502
lubricants, 177
slurry, 91
lubrication, 75
Lucas, Keith (1879–1916), 467
Lucht, C. M., 285
Lucite, 313
Ludgate Circus (London), 520
LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital), 288
lunar basalt, 173
lungs, alveolar lining, 302
Luria, Salvador (1912–91), 401
lustre, metals, 239
Luxor (Egypt), 508
Luzzati, Vittorio, 357
Lyme Regis (UK), 160
lymph nodes, 430
lymphocytes, 359
production, 430
lyophilic gels, 91
lyophilic sols, 90, 91
lyophobic gels, 91
lyophobic sols, 90, 91
lyotropic liquid crystals, 293
structure, 295
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 489, 502
lysine, 325, 326
residues, 478, 488
lysine vasopressin, 504
lysing agents, 330, 349
lysosomes, 371, 372
lysozyme, 349, 417
structure, 355
lysyl oxidase, 478
Lyubimova, Militsa, 461
lyxose, 280
Macadam, John (1756–1836), 264
macaque monkeys, brain, 499, 512
McCarty, Maclin, 400
MacCarty, William, 398
McClintock, Barbara (1902–94), 414, 423–4
McCollum, E. V., 283
McConnell, Harden, 303
McGinn, Colin (1950–), 511
McGrath, Rónán, 111
McGregor Tegart, W., 218
Mackay, Alan, 102, 110
McKee, Tim (1953–), 465
MacKinnon, Roderick, 470, 471
Mackintosh, Charles (1766–1843), 307
MacLeod, Colin, 400
macrophages, 417
macroscopic state, 89
mad cow disease, 518
Maddin, R., 260
Madsen, Jens, 84, 121
magentic softness, 259
magma, 157, 161
acidic, 171
basic, 171, 172
composition, 172
viscosity, 171–4, 176
magnesia, 157, 248, 249
Magnesia (Greece), 170, 239
magnesium, 199, 212
abundance, 155
atomic structure, 50
crystal structure, 117
electron configuration, 58
ionization energy, 63–4
magnesium chloride
formula, 58, 63–4
ionization energy, 63–4
magnesium oxide, 190–1
melting point, 75
molecular formula, 64
structural formula, 64
magnetically hard materials, 243
magnetic ceramics, 187–8
magnetic domain walls, 242, 259
see also Bloch walls
magnetic fields, 48
Earth, 16
magnetic flux, 236
magnetic poles, 222
magnetic quantum number, 38, 48, 52
magnetic softness, 243
magnetic tape, entropy, 81–2
magnetism, 222
applications, 243
and electricity, 16, 20, 223
mechanisms, 239–43
see also diamagnetism; ferromagnetism; paramagnetism
magnetite, 170, 203, 239
magnetostriction, ferromagnetic glasses, 259
magnets, 222
atomic, 242
permanent, 231, 243
superconducting, 202
magnifying glasses, 14
magnolias, 426
Magnus, Albertus (1206–80), 62
Maier, Wilhelm, 295
Maier–Saupe model, 295
Maiman, Theodore (1927–2007), 238
major histocompatability complex (MHC), 418
malachite, 170
Malamy, Michael, 424
malate, 361
L-malate, 384
maleic acid, 277
malignant cells, 427–9
malleability, 203
metals, 185
Malpighi, Marcello (1628–94), Anatomia Plantarum (1673), 434
maltase, 381
maltose, 280, 381
Mammalia, 513, 541
mammals
attention, 532
brain, 512
collagen, 487
composition, 322
movement, 531
mammillary bodies, 494
Manchester (UK), 190
manganese, 208, 214
manganese dioxide, 223
as catalyst, 87
manganese fluoride, 242
Mangold, Hilde, 412
mannose, 280, 440
Mansfield, C. B., 279
Mansfield, Peter (1933–), 498, 501
mantle, 157
many-body problems, 58
marble, 179, 188
Marggraf, Andreas (1709–82), 281
Margolis, Robert, 398
Margulis, Lynn (1938–), 353
Marie Selby Botanical Garden (Sarasota, Florida), 427
Mark, Herman (1895–1992), 439
markers, 364
Marler, Peter, 552
Marlowe, Christopher (1564-93), 1
marls, 176
marmosets, 513
Mars, 2, 4
Marsden, Ernest (1889–1970), 31
Marshak, Alex, 515
Marshall, John (1755–1835), 219
marsh gas, 268
martensite, 211, 213
Martin, Archer (1910–2002), 330
Martin, H. D., 285
Martius, Carl, 382
Marvell, Andrew (1621–78), 433
Marx, Karl (1818–83), 364
masking effects, 537
masks, 183
mass, 27
and energy, 21
and speed, 20
total, conservation of, 261
of Universe, 3
Massachusetts Medical Society Publications, 517
mass number, 41, 42
mass spectrographs, 44-5
mast cells, 417
materialism, 508
materials, 25
birefringent, 291
brittle, 117
diversity, 75
ductile, 117
materials (cont.)
ferromagnetic, 242, 243
fusible, 54
plastic, 318
polycrystalline, 118
refractory, 54
terrestrial, 17
see also amorphous materials; crystalline materials
matrices, 173, 220
matter, 1, 4
condensed, 57, 83–4, 85
density of, 3
and energy, 35–6
particles in, 25
states, 85
states of, 77–97
Matteucci, C., 466
Matthaei, J. Heinrich, 352
Maxam, Allan, 362, 364
Maxwell, James Clerk (1831–79), 16, 21, 79, 80, 225
electromagnetic wave theory, 224
wave-particle duality, 253
Maxwell’s equations, 16, 20
May, Robert, 428
Mazaud, Alain, 285
Mazur, Amir, 540
MBBA (methoxybenzylidene-n-butylaniline), 296, 300
mechanical deformation, 134
mechanical stability, 96
mechanical water, 198
mechanoreceptors, 474
Mediterranean Sea, 174
medium steels, 213
medulla, 436
medulla oblongata, 486
Medvedev, Zhores, 429
megasporophylls, 458
meiosis, 396
mechanisms, 397–8
Meissner, Walther (1882–1974), 231, 236
Meissner effect, 231
Meitner, Lise (1878–1968), 43, 46
melting, 113, 190
effect, 78
latent heats of, 94
mechanisms, 121
use of term, 363
melting points, 85
elements, 90
melting temperatures, 84
ceramics, 185
melting transition, 83–4
membrane hypothesis, 467
membrane lipids, 299
membrane potentials, 469
membrane proteins, 375–6
integral, 375
membranes, 88–9, 371
basilar, 479
biological, 300–4
composition, 302–4
mitochondria, 382, 390
myelin, 302
nuclear, 303, 395, 397
nucleolus, 395
phospholipid, 303–4
semipermeable, 89, 447
structure, 301–2
unit, 302
see also cell membrane; nerve membranes
memoria, 509
memory, 504
declarative, 540
and dreaming, 540
episodic, 540
long-term, 505
models, 504–6
procedural, 540
retrieval, 506
working, 515, 529, 542–3
memory sticks, 243
Mendeleev, Dmitri (1834–1907), 27, 38, 48–9, 50
Mendel, Gregor (1822–84), 23, 398, 399, 400, 416, 424
inheritance studies, 392–7, 399
law of independent assortment, 396, 413
Mendel’s law of independent assortment, 396, 413
Mendel’s laws, 394
meniscus, 85–6
Menke, H., 83, 256
Menten, Maud (1879–1960), 354
Β-mercaptoethanol, 329, 330
Mercati, Michaelis (1541–93), Metallotheca Vaticana (1717), 160
Mercereau, James, 236
mercury
abundance, 155
melting point, 84
meniscus, 85
structure, 54
Mercury (planet), 251
eclipses, 5
passages, 5
meristems, 443
apical, 443
meromyosin, 463
Merz, M. D., 258
mescaline, 489, 502–3
Meselson, Matthew (1930–), 345
mesoderms, 412
mesogens, 265, 290, 291, 293, 294, 302
in cell membranes, 300
multiphase, 293
mesophases, 293
mesophyll cells, 445
Mesopotamia, 177
Mesozoic, 164
messenger RNA see mRNA
metabolic pathways, 377–89
plants, 441
metabolism, 158
aerobic, 445
animals, 368
mechanisms, 380
plants, 368
metal–ceramic composites, 188
metal fatigue, 217
metalinks, 541
metal ions, 375
metallic bonding, 66–7, 75
metallic conduction, 222
minimum, 252
metallic glasses, 253, 255–6, 256, 260
corrosion resistance, 259
dislocations, 257, 259
ductile rupture, 259–60
ferromagnetism, 259
fracture surfaces, 256
liquid state, 256–8
plasticity, 259
random close-packed structure, 256–7
strength, 257, 259–60
see also ferromagnetic glasses
metallic melts, 256
metallic oxides, as catalysts, 92
metallography
early, 210
techniques, 130
metallurgy
early, 201–2
field of study, 202–3
metal particles, colloidal, 255
metals, 201–21
alkaline earth, 58
applications, early, 201
atomic structure, 209–10
classification, 214, 216–18
corrosion, 220–1
deformation, 185
dislocations, 214, 216–18, 219
electropositive, 224
extractive methods, 203
fatigue, 218–19
fractures, 218, 219–20
grain boundaries, 214
lustre, 239
malleability, 185
noble, 27
precious, 169
reflectivity, 239
selection criteria, 220–1
see also alkali metals
metamorphic rocks, 157, 167, 168
formation, 161, 179–80
metamorphosis, 372, 414–15, 488
metaphase, 395, 397
Metasoa, 513
metastability, 55–6
metastable phases, 213
metastable state, 85, 247
metencephalon, 483
meteorites, 175, 204
etched, 209, 210–12
meteors, 175
methaemoglobin, 484, 487
methane, 158, 265, 269
formation, 267–8
molecular formula, 64
occurrence, 267
sigma bonds, 71
structural formula, 263
structure, 72, 73–4
valence bonds, 270
methane molecules, formation, 70
methionine, 503
methoxybenzylidene-n-butylaniline (MBBA), 296, 300
methyl alcohol, 266
applications, 271
synthesis, 271
methyl chloride, 269, 273
methylene chloride, 269
methyl formate, 273
methyl group, 269
methylxanthines, 491
metric system, 7
metron,103
Mexicans, 502–3
Mexico, 183
Meyerhof, Otto (1884–1951), 381
Meyer, Kurt (1883–1952), 439
Meyer, Lothar (1830–95), 27
M., H., 485
MHC (major histocompatability complex), 418
Miall, Christopher, 545
micas, 139, 172, 174–5, 180, 184
applications, 168
biotite, 174, 197
in clays, 197
muscovite, 168, 174, 197
in sands, 176
structure, 75
mica schist, 179
mice
homeobox genes, 410
whiskers, 496
micellar structures, 321
micelles, 273, 273
Michaëlis, Leonor (1875–1949), 354
Michaëlis, W., 194
Michaëlis–Menten model, 354
Michalske, Terry, 249
Michel, Hartmut (1948–), 452, 455
Michelson, Albert (1852–1931), 18, 19–20, 301
Michelson–Morley experiment, 18–20
Michigan (USA), 157
microcline, 172
microdiorite, 175
microfibrils, 438, 439–41
microfilaments, 372–3, 374, 407
micromeres, 412
microsatellites, 364
microscopes
developments, 46
field-ion, 128, 212, 260
optical, 123, 173, 212, 434
polarized-light, 212
reflected-light, 210
scanning tunnelling, 63, 212
see also electron microscopy
microstructure, 133
microsyenite, 175
microtrabecular lattice, 373
microtubules, 373, 375–6, 397, 407, 546
networks, 374
roles, 395, 444–5
microvilli, 370, 374
microwave background, cosmic, 16, 17
microwave radiation, 16
midbrain, 483, 484
middle lamella, 438
mid-ocean rifts, 161
Miescher, Friedrich (1844–95), 333–5
Mikkelsen, Margareta (1923–2004), 394
mild steel, 213
production, 207
welding, 208
and wrought iron compared, 207–8
Miledi, Ricardo, 472, 473
milk, 280, 281
casein, 309–10
sour, 277
Milky Way, 2
diameter, 16
shape of, 5
size of, 3
Miller, A., 251
Miller, Stanley (1930–2007), 363
Millikan, Robert (1868–1953), 29, 59
Milner, Brenda, 485
Minas Gerais (Brazil), 166
mind, 495, 508–54
changes, 516–17, 518
erosion of, 518
nature of, 23–4
theory of, 542
mind-body problem, 508
mineral oil, 177
minerals, 154-81
chemical composition, 164–5
classification, 164
definitions, 164
formation, 157, 171–80
identification, 165
optical activity, 165
precipitation, 171–4
use of term, 164
vein, 165, 169–71
miniaturization, 230
minimal valence, 64
minimum metallic conduction, 252
mining, 155
minisatellites, 364
Minkowski, Hermann (1864–1909), 21
Mintun, Mark, 539
mirror images, 277
mirror lines, 107
mirror reflections, 107
mirrors, light studies, 19–20
Mirsky, Alfred (1900–74), 407
miscibility, 85
missing links, 424
mists, 90
Mitchell, Jack, 123, 237
Mitchell, Peter (1920–92), 390–292, 452
Mitchison, Graeme, 539
mitochondria, 302, 353, 371, 374, 386
DNA, 372
genetic code, 372
membranes, 382, 390
respiration, 377
mitosis, 394, 395, 431, 458
mechanisms, 397, 398
origin of term, 397
mitotic spindles, 465
mixtures, 86–7
mobility edge, 252
modelling clays, 92
moderators, 46, 138
modes, 535
Moebius, August Ferdinand (1790–1868), 132
Moebius strip, 132
Moho discontinuity, 157
MohoroviÚiÚ, Andrija (1857–1936), 157
Mohs scale, 165
molecular conformation, 285–6
molecular design, 283–5
computer-aided, 285
molecular dynamics, 93
molecular orbitals, 59, 287–8
molecular sieves, 188
molecular structure, 272
theories, 287
molecules, 53
amphipathic, 91
chaotic motion, 81
complementary, 343
kinetic energy, 57
linear, 270
motions, 84–5
ring-shaped, 282
two-atom, 58–9
unsaturated, 270, 318
molécules intégrantes, 98
M⊘ller, Christian (1904–81), 43
momentum, 9
conservation of, 21
Monaco, Anthony, 543
mongolism, 394
Mongoloids, 514
Monier, Joseph (1823–1906), 190
monkeys
brain, 499, 512
brain studies, 504
New World, 513
monochloromethane, 269
monocotyledonous species, 443
Monod–Jacob hypothesis, 345
Monod, Jacques (1910–76), 345, 354, 356, 385
monomers, 306, 308, 311
functionality, 310
protein, 322
monosaccharides, 280–2, 281
monosulfates, 190, 191, 195
monotremes, 541, 553
monozygotic twins, 543
montmorillite clay, 363
montmorillonite, 198, 199
Montreal (Canada), 276
Moon, 179
age of, 154
eclipses, 10
orbital speed, 5
origins, 4-5
space vehicle orbits, 58
moons, 2
Moorehead, Paul, 429
Moore, Stanford (1913–82), 329
Moore, W. J., 505
Morgan, Thomas, 398
Morley, Edward (1838–1923), 18, 19–20
morphogens, 408–10
Morrel, W. E., 83, 256
mortar, 189
Mortimer, John (1923–), 403
Mortlock, Douglas, 415
mosaics, 183
mosaic textures, 294
Moseley, Henry (1887–1915), 29, 38
motion, 9
laws of, 9, 20, 224
perpetual, 232
state of, 4
see also thermal motion; wave motion
motor cortex, 483, 496, 508, 530
motor nerves, 465
motor sequencing, and autism, 544
motor skills, PET studies, 539
motor theory, of thought, 515–17
Mott, Nevill (1905–96), 229, 232, 237, 239, 246, 252
Mottleson, Ben (1926–), 45
Mount Kenya, 172
Mount Paranal (Chile), 11
movement
and consciousness, 523–5, 529–54
drive-provoked, 529–31
importance of, 511–15
infants, 544
muscle-activating component, 531
muscular, 522, 530–1
planned, 527
sequence-orchestrating component, 531, 532
Moyle, Jennifer, 392
mRNA, 349–50, 407, 422
coding, 339, 342, 346
transcription, 341
verification, 345–6
mucous, 139
mudstones, 176
Muggleton-Harris, Audrey, 429
Mughrabi, Hael, 217
Mulder, Gerhardus (1802–80), 322
Müller, Erwin (1911–77), 212
Müller, Hermann, 399
Müller, Karl Alexander (1927–), 229, 233
Müller, Ulrike, 358
Müller-Hill, Benno, 356
Mullis, Kary (1944–), 363, 365
multiphase mesogens, 293
multiple bonds, 265
Munk, Hermann (1839–1912), 496
muscarine, 489
muscle-activating component, 531
muscle fibres, 460–1
muscles, 412, 460–5, 474
mechanisms, 464, 468
muscovite, 168, 172, 184
muscovite mica, 168, 174, 197
muscular hyperspace, 532–3
Mushet, Robert (1811–91), 208, 214
mutagenic agents, 351
mutation rate, 399
mutations, 351, 398, 403, 414, 456
homozygous transmission, 424
myasthenia gravis, 420
Mycenaean cups, 184
Mycoderma aceti (bacterium), 273
Mycophyta (fungi), 433
myelin, 375, 466, 468
myoglobin, 334, 477, 484, 485, 486
myosin, 414, 461–4
myxoedema, 409–11
N70, 10
Nabarro, Frank (1916–2006), 118, 121, 132, 135–6
Nabarro circuit, 132
Näbauer, M., 236
Nachmansohn, David (1899–1983), 473
NAD+ see nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
NADH see reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
NADP+ see nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+)
NADPH2 see reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH2)
NAG (N-acetylglucosamine), 349, 355
Nagaoka, Hantaro (1865–1961), 30
Nägeli, Carl (1817–91), 300
Nagel, Thomas (1937–), 523
NAM (N-acetylmuramic acid), 349, 355
Nanavut (Canada), 418
nanotubes, 276
Natta, Giulio (1903–79), 319
natural fats, 275–7
natural fibres, 438
natural gas, 177, 179
natural rubber, 313, 314–16, 318
natural selection, 364
theory of, 392
Nature (journal), 365
Neanderthals, 420, 514
near-death experiences, 555
nearest-neighbour distance, 113
Nebuchadnezzar II (c.605–562 BC), 215
nebulae, 3, 8
planetary, 8
Necker, Louis Albert (1786–1861), 548
necking, 136
Necturus spp. (mudpuppies), 474
Néel, Louis (1904-2000), 242
Néel temperature, 242
negentropy, 80
Negroids, 514
Neisser, Ulric (1928–), 527
nematic liquid crystals, 291–2, 301
structure, 292
nematics, twisted, 293, 298–9
nematodes, 501
neon
atomic structure, 50
electron affinity, 74
electron configuration, 58
neon atoms, energy states, 46, 47
neosilicates, 166
neostigmine, 473
Nephrops norvegicus (lobster), 420
nerve cells see neurons
nerve function, 465–6
nerve growth factor, 488, 502
nerve membranes, 467, 468–9, 471
structure, 470
nerve poisons, 469
nerves
adaptation, 474
afferent, 474
structure, 466
threshold values, 467
nervous system, 368, 412, 465–82, 524, 530
and autism, 543
functions, 515
network formers, 249
network modifiers, 249
Neuberg, Carl (1877–1956), 381
neural networks, 496, 549
neural tube, 414
neurons, 23–4, 302, 392, 500–1
cortical, 493
early studies, 466
mechanisms, 503
processes, 466
signaling, 470–1
staining, 472
structure, 473
neuropeptides, 492
Neurospora crassa (bread mould), 399
neurotransmitters, 466, 471–3, 492, 502
biosynthesis, 489
classification, 490
excitatory, 473
inhibitory, 473
neurulation, 414
neutral lipids, 302
neutral triglycerides, 303
neutrinos, 41
neutrons, 17, 28, 39–42, 46, 50
fast, 138
neutron stars, 6
New England (USA), 516
New Hampshire (USA), 166
New Jersey (USA), 161
Newlands, John (1837–98), 27, 38, 50
Newton, Isaac (1642/3–1727), 4, 14, 17, 93, 363, 466, 538
atomic theories, 28
corpuscular theory, 35
flow-rate studies, 92
force law, 55
gravitation studies, 21
laws of motion, 9, 20, 34, 224
planetary motion studies, 15, 19
Principia mathematica (1687), 9
Newton Harvey, E., 301
newts, 488, 501–2
New York (USA), 188, 520
New Zealand, 276
NGC 1232, 6
NGC 6543 (Cat’s Eye Nebula), 8
Nicholas II (1868–1918), 364
Nicholson, William (1753–1815), 148
nickel, 157, 204, 214–15
ores, 203
precipitates, 218
nickel oxide, 232
nickel whiskers, copper-plated, 129
Nicolson, Garth, 304
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), 381, 382, 449
structure, 387
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+), 381, 449–50
nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN), 387
Niedergerke, Rolf, 462
Nielsen, Claus, 550
night blindness, 482
niobium–carbon alloys, 220
niobium–tin superconducting cables, 231
Nirenberg, Marshall (1927–), 352
nitric acid, 144
nitric oxide, formation, 53–4, 92
nitrides, 187
nitrogen, 158
atmospheric, 42
nuclei, 39
pi bonds, 72–3
reactions, with oxygen, 53–4
valence, 64
nitrogen fixation, 92, 435, 446
and plants, 442
nitrogen isotopes, 42
nitroglycerine, 62
NMN (nicotinamide mononucleotide), 387
Nobel, Alfred (1833–96), 62
noble gases see inert gases
noble metals, 27
nodes, 34, 35, 47
nodes of Ranvier, 466, 468
Noll, Marcus, 357, 358
non-bridging ions, 249
non-electrolytes, 148
non-equilibrium states, 255–6
non-essential amino acids, 324
non-linearity, 428
non-mouldable polymers, 316
non-polar amino acids, 325
noradrenaline, 473, 489
functions, 502
norepinephrine see noradrenaline
Norrish, Ronald (1897–1978), 143
North America, 169, 174
petroleum, 177
Northern Hemisphere, seasons, 15
Northern Kattegat (Denmark), 420
Norway, 166, 172
nosean, 171
notochord, 414
Novamyl, 333
Novelli, G. David, 352, 363
noyaux, 296
n–p–n transistors, 231, 232
n-type semiconductors, 230
nuclear energy, 4
nuclear fission, 42–3, 46, 137, 138
nuclear forces, 156
nuclear fusion, 43, 155–6
nuclear membranes, 303, 395, 397
nuclear reactors, 46, 138
nuclease, 357
nucleation, homogeneous, 131
nuclei, 25–52, 223
elementary particles, 39–43
spontaneous disintegration, 39
nuclei (cells), 371, 374, 438
DNA, 372
nucleic-acid backbone, 378
nucleic acids, 144, 282, 333–5, 367
and hereditary message, 337
nucleolus, 337, 397, 398
nucleolus membranes, 395
nucleon–nucleon bonds, 43
nucleons, 42–6
nucleoproteins, 341, 357
nucleosomes, 354, 407
structure, 357
nucleotide bases, 341
nucleotides, 335
sequencing, 362
nucleus reticularis thalami, 532, 543
Nurse, Paul, 431
nylon, 310, 316, 318, 323
nylon-6, 6, 317
Oak Park (Illinois, USA), 190, 199
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Tennessee, USA), 44
objects, observed vs. imagined, 525–6
O’Brien, Muriel, 360
O’Brien, Sean, 276
observations, detailed, 14
obsidian, 164, 174
occipital lobe, 483, 496
Ochoa, Severo (1905–93), 352
Ochroma lagopus (balsa), 458, 458
Ochsenfeld, Robert (1901–93), 236
octane
isomers, 269
structural formula, 263
octaves, law of, 27
Oder River, 174
Oenothera drummondii (evening primrose), 457
oils, 177, 275–7, 279
oil wells, 177
olefiant gas, 270
olefins see alkenes
olfaction, 477
olfactory mode, 535
Oligocene, 174
oligonucleotides, 363
oligosaccharides, 280
Olins, Ada, 357
Olins, Donald, 357
olive oil, 275
olivine, 165–7, 172, 173, 174, 175, 197
Olsen, Malte, 285
Olympic Games, 465
oncogenic viral fragments, 429
oncogenic viruses, 429
opal, 192
Oparin, Aleksandr (1894–1980), Origin of Life (1938), 301
open-hearth steel, 208
production, 209
operator sites, 356
operons, 356, 385
opiate receptors, 503
opiates, 503
opossums, brain, 512
Oppenheimer, Ernest (1880–1957), 178
Oppenheimer, J. Robert (1904–67), 59
opsin, 475, 479–80, 481
optical activity, 277, 294
minerals, 165
optical illusions, 551
optical isomers, 277, 277
optical microscopes, 123, 173, 212, 434
optical radiation, 31–2
optic nerve, 479, 502
Orange River (South Africa), 180
orangutans, 423, 513
orbital hybridization, 264
orbitals
frontier, 288
hybrid, 69
lone-pair, 141
molecular, 59, 287–8
see also p orbitals; s orbitals
orbital stability, 4
orbital symmetry, 287
orbits, 4
circular, 14
elliptical, 14–15
stable, 6, 31
organelles, 337, 344, 441
classification, 371–2
organic acids, 266, 267, 272–3
organic chemistry, 261–2
organic compounds, 267–88
classification, 265–7
covalent bonding, 66
novel, 270
properties, 262
saturation, 67
solubility, 262
structural formulae, conventions, 268
organic radicals, 269
organic rocks, 176, 177
organic semiconductors, 380
organic superconductors, 284–5
organisms, 403–32
autotrophic, 324, 368
cellular, 367–8
classification, 368–70
genetics, 415–16
heterotrophic, 368
organogenesis, 414
organ transplantation, 417
Orgel, Leslie (1927–), 343, 363, 422, 429
orientational defects, 132
orientational order, 290
origami, 405
Ornitz, Edward, 543
Orowan, Egon (1902–89), 118, 136
orreries, 5
Ørsted, Hans Christian (1777–1851), 15–16, 223, 239
orthoclase feldspars, 167, 172, 174–5
orthophosphoric acid, 454
osmosis, 89, 447–9
osmotic pressure, 194
ossicle chain, 479
osteoblasts, 488
Oster, George, 428
O’Sullivan, Cornelius (1841–1907), 353–4
otoliths, 477
Oudet, Pierre, 357
ova, 398
oval window, 479
Overton, E., 466–7
Overton, Ernest Charles, 300–1
Ovshinsky, Stanford (1923–), 252
ovule, 458
oxaloacetate, 384, 454
oxidation, 132, 144, 147–8, 185, 380, 449
oxidative phosphorylation, 389
oxide glasses, 245
oxide layers, 145
oxides, 164, 170, 196
as catalysts, 92
formation, 158
inorganic, 245
molten, 199
oxidizing agents, 144
Oxus River, 202
oxygen, 87, 158, 182–4, 375
abundance, 154
in aliphatic compounds, 266–7
covalent bonding, 68
discovery, 139, 434
hydrogen bonding, 70
reactions
with alcohol vapour, 87
with nitrogen, 53–4
removal, 208
sigma bonds, 72
valence, 64
oxygen atoms, 165
oxygen–hydrogen bonds, 139–40, 152
oxygen ions, non-bridging, 249
oxygen isotopes, 149
oxygen polyhedra, 247
oxyhaemoglobin, 486
oxynitride glasses, 248
Pace-Schott, Edward, 540
pachytene stage, 396
pain
receptors for, 503
sense of, 474
pain-relieving drugs, 503
paints, 320–1
oil-based, 91
pair tunnelling, 236
Palade, George (1912–), 371, 372
paleoclimatology, 149
paleontology, 160
Paleozoic, 164, 179
palindromic cleavages, 357
palisade cells, 445, 449
palmitic acid, 272
palm oil, 275
Pampillo, C. A., 260
pancreas, bats, 386
Pangaea, 158, 159, 161
paper manufacture, 309
papian, 418
Paracelsianism, 509
Paracoccus denitrificans (bacterium), 372
paraffin oil, 267
paraffins see alkanes
paraffin wax, 267
paralogous subgroups, 411, 415
paralogs, 411, 415
paramagnetism, 225, 241, 242
Paramecium spp. (protozoa), 373, 409
digestion, 370
structure, 369
Paramecium tetraurelia (protozoon), 369
parasites, 433
Pardon, John, 357
parenchyma cells, 437
parenchyma rays, 437
parietal cortex, 483, 531
parietal lobe, 485, 497
Paris Exposition (1855), 190
Parkes, Alexander (1831–90), 308–9
Parkesine Company, 308
Parkinson’s disease, 502, 546
Parnas, Jacob, 381
parrots, 552
Parry, David, 465
Parthenon (Greece), 110
partial dislocations, 121, 214
particles
and forces, 45–6
in matter, 25
see also elementary particles; subatomic particles
Partridge, Peter, 217
Pass, John, 219
Passe, Crispijn van der (1564–1637), 140
passive transport, 447
pastes, 92
Pasteur, Louis (1822–95), 277, 277, 353, 363
Patel, Gordon, 278
pattern generation, 364
Pauli, Wolfgang (1900–58), 48, 52, 59, 241
Pauli exclusion principle, 49, 225, 226, 227, 233, 242, 251
definition, 48, 52
and quantum mechanics, 59
Pauling, Linus (1901–94), 74, 75, 140, 152, 184, 343
electronegativity scale, 65–6
molecular studies, 59
polypeptide studies, 332
protein studies, 332–3
Pauling radius, 140
PCR (polymerase chain reaction), 363–4, 365
pea plants, genetics, 393–7, 413
Pearl, Dennis, 537
pearlite, 211, 213, 214
peat, 177
pectins, 282, 439, 441, 444, 459
Pedersen, Laust BØrsting, 121
Pedersen, Ole, 217
Peierls, Rudolf (1907–95), 114, 118, 226–7, 231, 251
Peking man, 514
penetration depth, 236
Penfield, Wilder, 506
Penney, John, 546
Pennsylvania (USA), 177, 426–7
Pennsylvania Assembly (USA), 219
Penrose, Lionel (1898–1972), 542
Penrose, Roger (1931–), 23, 111, 542, 546
Penrose tilings, 111
pentane, 268
structural formula, 263
pentoses, 282
pentose sugars, 280
Penzias, Arno (1933–), 17, 17
pepsin, 330, 333–5, 381
peptidase, 381
peptones, 283, 381
percept, 527
perception, 522
cross-modal, 533, 535
limitations, 529
perchloric acid, 144
perfect crystals, 98–115, 117, 137–8
perforation plates, 437
performic acid, 329
perfume industry, 274, 286
perfumes, 271
peridotite, 173, 176
periodic table, 27–8, 38–9, 48–50, 51
discovery, 98
and electron configuration, 52, 57–8
electronegativities, 60
peripheral apparatus, 473
Perky, Cheves, 525–6
permanent dipole bonds, 70
permanent magnets, 231, 243
permeability regulators, 304
Pernice, B., 398
perovskites, crystal growth, 129
peroxidase, 354
perpetual motion, 232
Perrin, Fabienne, 422
Perrin, Jean (1870–1942), 29
Persian art, 202
Persian Gulf, 201
persistent slip bands, 217, 219
personality change, 516–17
Perspex, 313
Pert, Candice, 503
Perutz, Max (1914–2002), 333, 476, 485, 487
perylene, 270
PET see positron-emission tomography (PET)
Petch, Norman James (1917–92), 135
Peters, Rudolph (1889–1982), 373, 384
Petit, 542
Petit, Alexis (1791–1820), 112
petrified wood, 164
petroleum, 433
abundance, 139
applications, 177
composition, 177
formation, 179
origins, 179
refining, 308
see also gasoline
Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt (fl.1269), 222
peyotl, 502–3
Pfeffer, Wilhelm (1845–1920), 300
Phacophyta (olive-brown algae), 433
phages, 401
phagocytes, 374, 417
phagocytosis, 381
phagocytotic vesicles, 374
Pharaohs, 42
phase changes, 78, 94
phase diagrams, 133
iron–carbon, 211
phase problem, 331, 484-5
phases, 287
metastable, 213
mixtures, 88–9
use of term, 89
phase transitions, 89
Phelan and Collender Company, 308
phenol, 310
phenol formaldehyde, 317
phenomena, human interest in, 7–14
phenotype, 393
phenylpropane, 441
pheophytins, 455
pheromones, synthesis, 287
Philadelphia (USA), 219
Philip, Prince, Duke of Edinburgh (1921–), 364
Phillips, David (1924-99), 349, 355
philosophies, oriental vs. occidental, 154
phloem, 435, 436–7, 443
phonemes, 537, 539
phonon-distortion collisions, 112–13
phonon–phonon collisions, 114
phonons, 187, 233
collisions, 114
free paths, 112–13
phonon waves, 115
phosphates, 164, 170
phosphatidylcholine, structure, 298
phosphine, 268
3-phosphoglycerate, 383
phosphoglyceric acid, 454
phosphohexoisomerase, 353
phospholipid bilayers, 376
phospholipid membranes, fluidity, 303–4
phospholipids, 91, 298, 299, 302, 374–5, 450
amphiphilicity, 304
species differences, 303
phosphorescence, 270
phosphorus, in steel, 208–9
phosphorous pentoxide, as network former, 249
phosphorylation, 378, 431, 505
photochemical decomposition, 237
photochromic glasses, 255
photocopying process, 252–3
photo-electric effect, 35
photographic process, 137
and electrons, 237
photons, 48, 113, 235, 238
photophosphorylation, 450, 451
photoreceptors, 474
photosynthesis, 158, 377, 434, 449–57
artificial, 456–7
discovery, 435
mechanisms, 455
photosynthetic bacteria, 389
photosynthetic reaction centres, 452, 455
phototrophic plants, 433–4
phototrophs, 433
phototropism, 444
photo-voltaic effect, 235
phrenology, 494, 520
phyllosilicates, 166
phylogeny, 404
phylum, 404
physical sciences, 23
physical states, 84, 85, 86
phytase, 333
phytochromes, 444, 457
Piaget, Jean (1896–1980), 521, 527
pi bonds, 68, 72–3, 270
piezo-electric crystals, 168
pigeons, transitive inference, 552
pig iron, 206–7
applications, 205
limitations, 206
production, 205
pigs, 503
pili, 401
pi-meson, 45
pinocytotic vesicles, 374
Pinus mugo (dwarf mountain pine), 457
Pinus radiata (Monterey pine), 443, 444
Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), 439
pion, 45
Pippard, Brian (1920–), 229, 233
Pisa, Tower of (Italy), 21
pitch, 96, 164, 177, 264
pitchblende, 31, 158
pitch (distance), 292
pitcher plants, 442
pith, 436–7
Pithecanthropus spp. (hominids), 514
Pithecoidea, 513
pit pairs, 437
bordered, 437
Pitts, John, 409
pituitary gland, 494
plagioclase feldspars, 167–8, 172, 173, 174-6
Planck, Max (1858–1947), 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 112–13
theories, 114-15
Planck’s constant, 32
planetariums, 5
planetary nebulae, 8
planets, 2
age of, 154
early studies, 14
gravitational forces, 4
Mars, 2, 4
motions, 11
orbits, 4, 14
origin of term, 10
Pluto, 30
Saturn, 30
visible, 10
see also Earth; Jupiter; Mercury; Venus
plankton, 433
planned movement, 527
plansma membrane, 300–1
plant cells, 370, 371, 392
cell walls, 376
structure, 438–41
plant hormones, 448
growth, 443
plants, 433–59
anatomy, 435–41
carnivorous, 442
cell differentiation, 443, 444–5
chlorophyll molecules, 368
composition, 322
early studies, 434-5
energy conversion, 433
fossilized, 177
growth, 443, 447
growth hormones, 443
herbaceous, 436, 458
immunity, 416
importance of, 458
insectivorous, 442, 445
metabolic pathways, 441
metabolism, 368
and nitrogen fixation, 442
phototrophic, 433–4
protein synthesis, 442
reproduction, 457–8
respiration, 445
specialization, 443
vascular system, 435
veins, 435
water in, 445–6
woody, 436
see also leaves; trees
plant sugars, 281, 440–1
plasma, 476
surface tension, 301
plasmalemma see cell membrane
plasma membrane see cell membrane
plasmid chimeras, 361
plasmids, 357, 360–1
plastachrons, 449
Plaster of Paris, 170, 194
plastic deformation, 96, 117, 121, 213, 216
plasticizers, 308, 313, 320–1
plastic materials, 318
plastics, 273, 308–9
definition, 306
plastic solids, 92
plastids, 454
plate glass, 249–50
platelets, 476
plate tectonics, 158–63
platinum, 169
as catalyst, 87
platinum phthalocyanine, 137
Plato (c.428–c.348 BC), 78
Platonic solids, 78
Platyrrhini, 513
play, 541–2
plesiosaurs, 160
Plexiglas, 313
Plunkett, Guy, 365
Plunkett, Roy J. (1910–94), 312
Pluto, 30
plutonium, nuclear fission, 137
p–n junctions, 231
p–n–p transistors, 231
Pohl, Robert (1884–1976), 126, 230, 235
Poincaré, Henri (1854–1912), 20
point-contact transistors, 232
point defects, 125, 127, 132, 253
classification, 124
point groups, 106
point symmetry, 106
poisoned enzymes, 355
Polanyl, Michael (1891–1976), 118
polar groups, 302
polarity, 66
polarizability, 70
polarization, 165, 284–5, 301
polarized light, 277, 290
polarized-light microscopy, 210–11
polarizers, crossed, 173, 300
polar nuclei, 458
Polaroid, 277, 291, 301
polar side groups, 325
pole in time, 1
poliomyelitis virus, 359
polishes, 271, 307
Polk, D. E., 258, 260
pollen grains, 458
polyamides, 316
polybenzyl-L-glutamate, 295
polycrystalline materials, 118
polycrystals, 128, 134, 135, 212, 216
metallic glasses as, 257–8
polydiacetylenes, colour changes, 278–9
polyethylene, 312
polyglutaraldehyde, 376
polygonization, 213
polyhydric alcohols, 275
cis-1,4-polyisoprene, 314
trans-1,4-polyisoprene, 314
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 363–4, 365
polymer chains, 313, 316
polymer chemistry, 308
polymeric substances, 77
polymerization, 278, 280
addition, 317, 319
amino acids, 325
condensation, 317, 318, 324, 325
energy requirements, 348–9
polymers, 265, 270, 306–21
amorphous, 320
analyses, 310
artificial, 306–7
atactic, 311, 313
branching, 311
composition, 312–16
condensation, 316
conformation, 310–11
covalent bonds, 310
cross-linked, 77, 311, 315–16, 318
crystallinity, 310
development, 307–12
diffusion, 315
entangled, 316
isotactic, 311, 313
ladder, 336
linear, 184, 311
manufacture, 316–19
natural, 306
non-mouldable, 316
properties, 310–11
side groups, 311
structure, 310–15
syndiotactic, 311, 313
synthesis, 308
thermosetting, 316, 320–1
valences, 310
see also biopolymers; copolymers
polymethyl methacrylate, 313
polymorphism, 258
polymyalgia rheumatica, 420
polynucleotide phosphorylase, 352
polyoma, 429
polyoma virus, 359
polypeptide bonds, 324
polypeptide chains, 322, 327, 331
links between, 326
polypeptides, 283, 324–5, 485, 504
conformation, 325, 488
structure, 332
polypropylene, isotactic, 319
polyribosome, 350
polysaccharides, 280, 281, 376, 487, 491–2
polysomes, 342, 350
polyspermy, 368
polystyrene, 313
atactic, 320
polytene chromosomes, 407
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 312, 320
polythene, 312, 316, 318
polyuridylic acid, 352
polyvinyl chloride, 312–13, 320
Pompeii (Italy), 161
Poncelet, Victor (1788–1867), 217
Pongidae, 513
pons, 486
Pope, Alexander (1688–1744), 98, 116
population inversion, 235, 238
Populus nigra (black poplar), 438
p orbitals, 69, 70, 73–4
porcelain, 197, 198
pores, 220
porphyrin rings, 450
porphyrins, 179
Porter, George (1920–2002), 143, 456
Porter, Keith (1912–97), 372, 373, 444-5
Porter, Rodney, 418
Portland (Dorset, UK), 188
Portland cement, 188–9, 188, 200
chemistry, 191
composition, 190–1
portlandite, 191–2
Portsmouth (UK), 151–2
positional information, 408
positive feedback, 468
positron-emission tomography (PET), 497–8, 501
motor skills studies, 539
positrons, 41
postsynaptic membrane, 471, 472
potash–silica glasses, 254
potassium, 167, 199
abundance, 155
potassium aluminium silicates, 184, 197
potassium aluminium sulfate, 98
potassium channels, 470, 471
potassium chloride, crystals, 235, 238
potassium cyanate, 261, 262
potassium dichromate, crystals, 98
potassium feldspar, 198
potassium ions, 168, 469–71
potassium nitrate, 61–2
potassium oxide, 248, 249
potassium sulfate, 191, 193
potassium uranyl sulfate, 29
potato blight, 360
potential difference, 148
potential energy, 4, 32, 85, 112, 114
continuous changes, 32, 87
conversion, 54, 55–6
discrete changes, 32
Potter, David, 408
pottery, 188, 196–200
early, 196
Precambrian, 161
precious metals, 169
precipitates, 126, 134, 194, 212, 218, 220
precipitation, 149, 204
precursor-mRNA, 422
preformation, 403
prefrontal cortex, 515, 517
and intelligence, 543
Prelog, Vladimir (1906–98), 286
premotor cortex, 530, 531, 532, 536, 536, 539
preserving media, 272
pressure, and electrical resistance, 224
presynaptic membrane, 471, 472
Pretiosa Margarita Novella (1546), 140
Pribram, Karl, 505
Priestley, Joseph (1733–1804), 25–6, 139, 380, 434
Prigogine, Ilya, 363
primary alcohols, 266, 272
primary bonds, 67
primary endosperm nuclei, 458
primary hues, 481
primary knock-on, 137
primary visual area, 524
Primates, 513
see also apes; monkeys
primers, 363
primitive cells, 103, 107
principal quantum number, 38, 47, 48, 52
printing, 14
prions (proteinaceous infectious particles), 518
prismane, 285
probability clouds, 47–8, 70
procedural memory, 540
processes (neurons), 466
Proconsul spp. (fossil primates), 513
Proctor, Noble, 554
programmed death, 403
prokaryotes, 360, 401
classification, 371
conjugation, 401
proline, 488
promoters, 341, 351
propane, structural formula, 263
propellane, 285
prophase, 395, 397
propylene, 270
proteinaceous infectious particles (prions), 518
protein folding, 486
thermodynamics, 329
protein kinase, 505
protein monomers, 322
proteins, 295, 301–2, 367, 374–5, 376
conformation, three-dimensional, 330–3
decomposition, 282
denatured, 328
depictions, 333
growth, 351–2
hydrolysis, 491–2
in nucleus, 337
origin of term, 322
structure, 327–35
primary, 327
quaternary, 332
scale models, 332
secondary, 331, 332
tertiary, 332, 334
thermal agitation, 335
variations, 323
see also membrane proteins
protein sequencing, 330
protein structure, 283, 324, 329
protein synthesis, plants, 442
proticity, 392
protofilaments, 373
protons, 17, 28, 39–46, 50
charges, 47
protoporphyrin, 477
protozoa, 369
provoked inputs, 529–31
Prusiner, Stanley (1942–), 518
Prussia, 174
Pseudamicrothorax dubius (ciliate), 467
pseudoplasmodium, 405, 406
pseudopods, 413
p states, 46, 47, 49–50, 60, 70
pterodactyladiene, 285
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), 312, 320
Ptolemaeus, Claudius (c.90–168), 12–13, 14
p-type semiconductors, 230–1
public knowledge, 508
Puck, 548
Puck, Theodore, 398
puddled wrought iron, 206–7
puffs, 407
pulsars, 6
purines, 282, 335, 342, 346
Pyrex, 188, 248
pyrimidines, 282, 335, 342
pyrite, 170, 171
Pyroceram, 188
pyro-electric crystals, 168
pyrophosphate, 383–4
pyrophosphate bonds, 378–80
pyroxenes, 166, 167, 172, 173, 180, 197
abundance, 168
pyruvate, 382, 383
quanta, 25–52
emission, 37
energy, 35, 37
magnitude, 32
quantasomes, 451
quantized energy levels, 251
quantum mechanical model, 39
quantum mechanics, 17, 236, 239–41, 287
applications, 242
and Pauli exclusion principle, 59
quantum numbers, 38, 47–8, 52, 59
azimuthal, 38, 47–8, 50, 52
magnetic, 38, 48, 52
principal, 38, 47, 48, 52
spin, 38, 49–50, 52
quantum orbits, electrons, 57
quantum phenomena, 63
quantum theory, 35, 36, 48, 99, 225
quartz, 101, 169, 174, 180, 184, 188
abundance, 168
applications, 168
crystals, 172, 173
in glass manufacture, 249
occurrence, 170, 174–5
in sands, 176
quartzite, 179
quasars, 22
quasicrystals, 110–11
quenching, 213
glasses, 255–6
splat, 255–6
Quetzalcoatl Ce Acatl, 183
quicklime, 188
quinine, synthesis, 287
quinone, 450, 452, 455
see also coenzyme Q
rabbles, 207
Racker, Efraim (1913–91), 386, 389, 391
radar waves, 34
radiant energy, 4, 31
discrete, 35
radiation
Cerenkov, 44
infrared, 16, 34, 35
microwave, 16, 17
properties, 35
spectra, 16
ultraviolet, 16, 32, 34, 35
visible, 32
wavelengths, 16, 17
see also electromagnetic radiation
radiation absorption, glasses, 253
radicals, 71, 144–5, 146, 148
organic, 269
radio, 46
radioactive isotopes, 41–2
applications, 41
half-period value, 41, 46
radioactive labelling, 286, 346
radioactivity, 29, 30–1, 39, 46, 158
accumulation, 497
natural, 137
types of, 31
radioactivity techniques, 154
radio astronomy, 22
radiocarbon dating, 42
radio telescopes, 22
radio waves, 16, 34
radium, 31
sources, 39, 158
radon, electron affinity, 74
raffinose, 280
Ragsdale, Clifton, 545–6
rainbow, spectrum, 9
raincoats, 307
plastic, 320
Rainwater, James (1917–86), 45
Ramachandran, Gopalasamudram (1922–2001), 331, 487
Ramapithecus spp. (fossil primates), 513
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago (1852–1934), 466, 472
random close packing, 256–7, 258
random network model, 247
random networks, 141
random walks, 93, 310, 315
Ranvier, nodes of, 466, 468
raphe nuclei, 502
rapid cement, 193
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 503–4, 539–40, 541
rare earths, 241
Rasmussen, Finn Berg, 285
ratio, 509
Rayleigh, Lord (John William Strutt) (1842–1919), 35, 255
Rayleigh–Jeans theory, 35
Raymer, William, 360
rayon, 309
cuprammonium, 309
viscose, 309
reactions
concerted, 288
equilibrium, 143
reaction series, 172
Read, Thornton, 134
reafference, 525
internal, 525
receptor cells, 474
receptor molecules, 474
receptors, 474–82
for pain, 502–3
sensory, 533
types of, 474
recessive characteristics, 393
recognition mechanisms, 416
recombinant DNA, 361
recombinants, 401
recombination techniques, 415
recording tape, 243
recovery, 216, 218
recrystallization, 216, 218
rectification, 231
rectifiers, 231
red blood cells see erythrocytes
red-brown rusts, 187
Redfield, James, 520
red giants, surface temperatures, 5
Red Hill (Pennsylvania, USA), 426–7
Redi, Francesco, 363
redox chains, 390
redox reduction, 380
red shift, 17
gravitational, 22
red shortness, 205
reduced coenzyme Q, structure, 388
reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2), 381
structure, 388
reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), 381
in metabolism, 383–9
recycling, 381
structure, 387
reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH2), 449, 454
reducing agents, 449
reduction, 147, 380, 449
reductive pentose phosphate cycle, 454
reflected-light microscopes, 210
reflections, 107, 108, 239
reflectivity, metals, 239
reflexes, 510, 517
ballistic, 528
and consciousness, 521–2, 523–4
context-specific, 528
refraction, 250
refractive indices, 291
glasses, 248, 250–1, 253
refractory bricks, 187
refractory materials, 54
refractory period, 468
Regensburg (Bavaria), 151
Regnault, Victor (1810–78), 312–13
regulation, embryos, 411–12
regulator genes, 356
Reimschuessel, R. C., 260
reinforced concrete, 190, 488
Reinitzer, Friedrich (1857–1927), 289–90, 290
Reisch, Gregor (1467–1525), 494, 508–9
relativity
general theory of, 21
special theory of, 1, 20–1
relaxation times, 143, 315
religion
early, 7
goals, 23
vs. science, 14, 15
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 503–4, 539–40, 541
replication, 346
repression, 420, 429
repressors, 351, 356
reproduction, 393
plants, 457–8
see also sexual reproduction
reptation, 316
reptation model, 315
reptiles, brain, 512
repulsive forces, 295
reservoir rocks, 179
residual entropy, 152
resins, 306, 307
petrified, 164, 174
resonance, 275
resonance effects, 69–70, 235
respiration, 377–81, 390–2, 434
aerobic, 375, 380, 381, 387, 482–3
anaerobic, 375, 387, 483
cytochromes in, 389
plants, 445
types of, 387
respiratory chain, 385, 390–2, 449
respiratory processes, 482–3
resting potentials, 467
restriction endonucleases, 357, 361–2
restriction enzymes, 352, 355, 361, 422
restriction-fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), 364
retardation, 4
rete mirabile, 508
reticulocytes, 351–2
11-cis-retinal, 474, 479–80, 481–2
structure, 475
11-cis-retinal lysine side chain, 475
retinal–opsin complexes, 482
retinal slip, 525
all-trans-retinal, 480
structure, 475
all-trans-retinol see vitamin A
Reutersvard, Oscar (1915–2002), 542
reverberatory furnaces, 206–7
reverse transcriptases, 359, 428–9
Reymond, Emil Du Bois, 466
RFLP (restriction-fragment length polymorphism), 364
rhamnose, 440
rhesus factor, 476
Rhizobium spp. (soil bacteria), 442, 446
ferredoxin, 435
rhizoids, 409
rhodopsin, 474, 479–80
rhyolite, 168, 173, 175
Ribault, Michel, 285
riboflavin mononucleotide see flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
ribonuclease, 330, 360
ribonucleic acid see RNA
ribose, 280, 335, 377
ribose phosphate, 505
ribosomal-RNA (rRNA), 346
ribosomes, 327, 345, 350, 355–6, 372, 374
ribulose bisphosphate, 454
Rich, Alexander (1925–), 342, 343, 350, 487
Richards, Anthony (d.1952), 217
Richards, Brian, 357
Richards, Frederick, 331
Richardson, Jane (1941–), 333
rickets, 283, 490–1
rII gene, 351
Ringer, Sidney (1835–1910), 465
ring-shaped molecules, 282
Ritchie, Arthur, 515
RNA, 282, 335
genetic flow, 428
localization, 335–6, 337
protein synthesis, 346–50
staining, 337
synthesis, 352
in viruses, 323
RNA molecules, as catalysts, 364
RNA-polymerase, 341
RNA world, 343
road surfacing, 264
roasting, 204
Robertson, J. D., 302
Robertson, J. M., 331
Robson, Barry, 331
rocks
acidic, 175
oldest, 154
organic, 176, 177
reservoir, 179
use of term, 164
see also clastic rocks; igneous rocks; metamorphic rocks; sedimentary rocks
rock salt, 98, 130, 171, 177, 234
irradiation, 229–30
rods, 479, 502
Röhrer, Heinrich (1933–), 63, 212
Romans, 161
cement, 188
glasses, 246
R⊘mer, Ole (1644–1710), 15
Röntgen, Wilhelm (1845–1923), 28–9, 99, 229–30
roots, 445
Rorschach, Hermann (1884-1922), 550
Roseman, S., 414
Rosenhain, Walter (1875–1934), 116–17
Rose, Stephen, 540
Rossard, C., 218
rotational symmetry, 106, 108, 121
rough endoplasmic reticulum, 371, 372, 374
Rous, Peyton (1879–1970), 358, 428
Rous sarcoma virus, 358, 359
Roux, Wilhelm (1850–1924), 411
Rowell, John, 236
Royal George (ship), 151–2
Royal Society of London, 19
rRNA, 346
rubber cements, 91
rubbers, 307, 318
natural, 313, 314–16, 318
soft, 318
vulcanization, 308, 316, 318
rubidium atoms, 40
rubidium nitrate, 145
Rubin, Edgar (1886–1951), 548
ruby, 234, 238
rudaceous group, 176
Ruska, Ernst (1906–88), 46, 211–12
Russia, 170, 364, 427
rusting, 145, 148
rusts, 151
black, 148
brown, 148
red-brown, 187
Rutherford, Ernest (1871–1937), 21, 31, 39
Rutland and Burlington Railroad (USA), 516
Rutter, Michael, 543
saccades, 547, 551
Saccharomyces spp. (yeasts), 271
plasmids, 357
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)
cell cycle control, 431
sequencing, 365
sacrificial anodes, 146, 151
Saedler, Heinz, 424
Sagittarius Dwarf, 10
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (hominid), 514
St John Island (Egypt), 172
Salmonella typhi (bacterium), amino citric acid, 350
salt see sodium chloride
salt bridges, 328, 355, 486
salt domes, 179
saltpetre, 61–2
salts, 145–6
hydrolysis, 147–8
internal, 283
San Andreas fault (California, USA), 161
sands, 176, 189
sandstones, 176, 427
Sanger, Frederick (1918–), 330, 362, 364, 422
sap, 437
sap ascent, cohesion theory, 447
saponification, 278
sapphires, 187, 234
saprophytes, 433
Sarasota (Florida), 427
sarcomeres, 462
sarcoplasmic reticulum, 465
Sar-e-Sang (Afghanistan), 171
satellite DNA, 364
satellites (artificial) see artificial satellites
saturated molecules, 268
saturation, 67
saturation magnetization, metallic glasses, 259
Saturn, 30
Saupe, Alfred, 295
Saussure, Nicolas-Théodore de (1767–1845), 434–5, 449
saxitoxin, 469
scalar quantities, 18
scale illusion, 522
scandium, 254
scanning electron microscopy, 129, 194
scanning tunnelling microscopes, 63, 212
scattering, 255
Schawlow, Arthur (1921–99), 238
schemata, 527, 528, 535
acquisition, 540
activated, 528–9, 538–9
and dreaming, 539
incorporation, 540, 553
Scheraga, Harold, 331
Schiff bases, protonated, 475
schists, 168
Schizomycophyta, 371
schizophrenia, 502, 525, 526
Schizosaccharomyces pombe (yeast), cell cycle, 431
Schleiden, Matthias (1804-81), 367
Schlesinger, Max, 359
Schoenberg, David (1911–2004), 229
Schoenflies, Artur, 107
Schönbein, Christian, 308
Schottky, Walter (1886–1976), 124, 128
Schottky defects (SDs), 126
Schrieffer, John Robert (1931–), 232–3, 236, 284
Schrödinger, Erwin (1887–1961), 37–8, 39, 47, 74, 226
Schutzenberger, Paul (1829–97), 309
Schwann, Theodor (1810–82), 367
Schwanwitsch, B. N., 408
Schwartz, Berthold (1318–84), 62
Schweitzer, Otto, 309
science
and curiosity, 13–14
field of study, 7
as public knowledge, 7
vs. religion, 14, 15
Science (journal), 365
sclerenchyma fibres, 445
Scotland, 173
Scott, Walter (1771–1832), 322
scrapie, 518
screw-oriented dislocations, 124
screw symmetry, 1–8, 107, 292
scurvy, 283, 488
SDs (Schottky defects), 126
sealing wax, 307
seasons, 15
sea-urchins, 411–12, 480, 490
sebacoyl chloride, 318
secondary alcohols, 266, 272
secondary bonds, 67
second law of thermodynamics, 79, 80
second messengers, 503
sedimentary rocks, 157, 164
breakdown, 176
classification, 176
dating, 160, 161–4
formation, 161, 176–9
fossils, 161–4
see also chemical group rocks; clastic rocks; organic rocks
Seeber, Ludwig (1793–1855), 56
seeding, 131, 207
seed plants, 433–4
seeds, 458
Seeger, Alfred (1927–), 137
Seeger zone, 137, 138
Segall, Robert, 217
segregation, law of, 393
Seitz, Frederick (1911–), 124-5
selective advantage, 422
selenium, amorphous, 252–3
selfish DNA, 422–4
self-organization, 364, 537–8
self-regulation, 408
Selfridge, Oliver, 550
Sellers, C., 218
semicircular canals, 475–7
semiconduction, 380
semiconductors
extrinsic, 226, 227, 229–31
intrinsic, 226, 227, 228–9
n-type, 230
organic, 380
p-type, 230–1
tunnel effect, 236
see also amorphous semiconductors
semiological data, 157
semipermeable membranes, 89, 447
Sendai virus, 303
senescence, 429
sense organs, 412, 474
senses, 474–82
tactile, 474
thermal, 474
sensory feedback, 523–4, 532
sensory inputs, 523–4
sensory processing, 515
sensory receptors, 533
sensory systems, and binding problem, 533–5
sensus communis, 508–9
septum, 373, 395, 397, 494
sequence-orchestrating component, 531, 532
sequencing, 362, 365
Sequoiadendron giganteum (Californian redwood), 446
serine, structure, 298
serotonin, 489, 502
servo mechanisms, 528
sessile dislocations, 125
Setlow, Richard, 429
Severn, River (Shropshire, UK), 206, 208, 209
sex glands, 412
sexual differentiation, 393
sexual reproduction, 398, 414
SgrA∗, 11
Shadmehr, Reza, 539
Shakespeare, William (1564–1616), 139, 306, 550
shales, 176, 180, 198
Shapiro, James, 424
shark teeth, 160
Shashoua, Victor, 504
Shaw, George Bernard (1856–1950), Man and Superman (1903), 511–15
shear bands, 260
shear deformation, 95
Shechtman, Daniel, 110–11
Sheets-Johnson, Maxine, 521
Shelby, J. E., 249
shellac, 91, 307
shells, 50
shells (molluscs), 160
Sherrick, Carl, 546
Sherrington, Charles (1857–1952), 466, 473, 515
Man on his Nature (1940), 549
Shipp, Stewart, 550
ships
caulking, 264
corrosion, 151–2
metals, 220–1
Shockley, William (1910–89), 224, 232
shock waves, 157
shooting stars, 175
short-range order, 257
Shropshire (UK), 205, 206, 208, 209
shrubs, 458
Shubin, Neil, 418
Shunga (Russia), 276
sial, 157
Siberia, 171
siccinite, 174
sickle-cell anemia, 294, 486–8
side groups, 311, 322, 329
polar, 325
siderite, 170
Siemens, Carl Wilhelm (1823–83), 209
sieve cells, 437
sieve plates, 437, 442
sieve-tube members, 437, 442
sight see vision
sigma bonds, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72–3, 267
sigma-pi bonding, 265
silica, 157, 173, 174, 196, 198
chemical formula, 184
crystal forms of, 247
as network former, 249
softening temperature, 247
see also cristobalite; quartz
silica-cement springs, 198
silicate glasses, 257
silicates, 164, 165–9, 182–4, 191
abundance, 165, 166
silicic acid, 194, 197, 198
silicon, 27, 182–4
amorphous, 252
silicon atoms, 165
silicon carbide, 182
silicon compounds, 264–5
silicone putty, 96
silicon ions, 249
silicon nitride, 248
applications, 182
silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, 165–8, 171
silk, 307, 331
artificial, 309
silkworms, 307
Silver, Arnold, 236
silver, 164, 169, 201
native, 157
silver bromide, 237
silver halides, 237
crystals, 123
silver sulfide, 237
silver thiosulfate, 237
Simae, 513
sima rock, 157
Simian virus 40, 429
Simian virus DNA, 336, 361
similarity symmetry, 130
Simms, James, 409
Simon, Eric, 503
simultaneity at a distance, failure, 20–1
Sinanthropus spp. (hominids), 514
Singer, S. Jonathan, 302, 304
Singer, Wolf, 550
single crystals, 128, 129
Sinostega pani (tetrapod), 427
sintering, 190, 197
sisal, 438
Sjölander, Sverre, 533
Sjöstrand, Fritjof, 371
skin, 374, 412
skin depth, 239
Skinh⊘j, Erik, 497
Skinner, Burrhus Frederic (1904–90), 521
Skinner, Herbert (1900–60), 228–9
Skinner, James, 532
Skolnick, Mark, 364
Skou, Jens (1918–), 470–1, 470
Skoyles, John, 515
sky
blue colour of, 255
red color of, 255
Skye, Isle of (Scotland), 173
slag, 205, 206, 209
slaked lime, 188
slate, 179, 198
Slater, E. C., 389
Slater, Henry, 342
Slater, John (1900–76), 59
Slautterback, David, 373
sleep
functions, 553
rapid eye movement, 503–4, 539–40, 541
sliding filament model, 462
slip, 117–18, 122, 125, 185
dislocation-mediated, 216
see also cross slip
slip bands, persistent, 217, 219
slip lines, 116–17
slip planes, 120, 125, 216
slurrys, 91
Smale, Stephen, 428
Smalley, Richard, 276
smallpox, 358
smectic A structure, 293, 294
smectic B structure, 293
smectic C structure, 293, 294
smectic liquid crystals, 291, 292, 294, 304
structure, 292
smell, 286
smelting, 201
iron, 204
Smith, Edwin (1822–1906), 508
Smith, Hamilton, 361, 365
Smith, J. L. B., 425
Smith, Lloyd, 365
smokes, 90
snakes, and binding problems, 533–4
Snider-Pellegrini, Antonio, 159
Snow, Charles Percy (1905–80), 499
snowflakes, 131
crystal structures, 150, 151
Snyder, Solomon, 503
soap, 91, 273, 277, 293
soap bubbles, 273
soap industry, 272
soap molecules, 273
Socrates (c.470–399 BC), 23
soda, 248
soda-lime–silica glasses, 248, 254
sodalite, 171
sodium, 146, 167, 199
abundance, 155
atomic structure, 50
electron configuration, 58
ionization energy, 60, 62–3
sodium acetate, 145–6
sodium aluminate, 207
sodium aluminium silicates, 196
sodium atoms, 40
structure, 58
sodium chloride, 88–9, 98
crystals, 234
crystal structure, 109, 113
flame test, 31–2
formula, 53, 58, 64
ionization energy, 62–3
melting point, 75
minerals, 171, 177
precipitation, 145
solutions, 89
vacancy defects, 230
vacancy motion, 125–6
sodium fluoride, 184
sodium hydroxide, 144, 309
reactions, 145–6
sodium ions, 145, 148, 469–71
sodium oxide, 248
as network modifier, 249
sodium palmitate, 272
sodium stearate, 273
structure, 274
sodium sulfate, 191, 193
softening point, glasses, 248
soft rubbers, 318
softwoods, 438
Sogo, José, 360
soil bacteria, 442, 446
ferredoxin, 435
Sokoloff, Louis, 497
solar cells, 252
solar energy, 235, 433
solar system, 2, 17
age of, 154
and atomic structure, 30
comets, 31
formation, 155–6
size of, 30
soldering, 210
solders, 85
solenoid (structure), 357
solid foams, 91–2
solidification temperature, 172
solids, 85
amorphous, 101
crystalline, 101, 104–6
plastic, 92
Platonic, 78
solid state electronics, 46, 222
sols
classification, 89–91
lyophilic, 90, 91
lyophobic, 90, 91
solutes, 89
solute–solute bonds, 133
solvents, 89, 145, 271
industrial, 272
water, 144
solvent–solute bonds, 133
solvent–solvent bonds, 133
somatic cells, 397, 411
somatosensory cortex, 483, 496
somites, 414
Sommerfeld, Arnold (1868–1951), 225, 226, 241
s orbitals, 69, 70, 73–4
Sorby, Henry (1826–1908), 130, 210, 211
sound, 115
attenuation, 95
sense of, 478–9
speed of, 17–18, 93, 115
sound conduction, 93–5
sound energy, 115
sound transmission, 93
sound waves, 93
South Africa, 178, 180
South America, 161
South Dakota (USA), 168, 172
Southern Hemisphere, seasons, 15
space, 1, 21
space groups, 106
space lattices, 103, 104
space-time, 21
space vehicles, orbits, 58
Spaepen, Franz, 260
Spain, 514
Spanish conquest, 183
specialization, plants, 443
special theory of relativity, 1, 20–1
specific heat, 80, 112, 225
specificity, 354–5
spectra, continuous, 16
spectral lines, 32, 49–50
sharp, 37
spectroscopy, 22
experiments, 139
vibrational, 141
speculum, 219
speech disorders, 496
speed
and mass, 20
and velocity compared, 18
Spemann, Hans (1869–1941), 412
Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903), 364
Spermatophyta (seed plants), 433–4, 458
classification, 433
spermatozoa, 368, 398
Sperry, Roger (1913–94), 488, 498–9, 501–2, 515
sphalerite, 170
spherulites, 316, 320
sphingolipids, 299
spiders, 307
Spiegelman, Sol (1914–83), 346
spina bifida, 414
spinal cord, 414, 473
spinerettes, 307
spin labels, 303
spinners, 250
spin quantum numbers, 38, 49–50, 52
spin waves, 133
spiny anteaters, 553
and dreaming, 541
spiral galaxies, 2, 6
Spiteller, Adolph, 309–10
splat quenching, 255–6
splay, liquid crystals, 295–6
split-brain individuals, 498
split genes, 422
spodumene, 166
sponge iron, 204
sponges, 412–13
spongy cells, 445
spontaneous emission, 238
spores, 405, 406
sporophytes, 458
sprotoplast, 438
Spurzheim, Johann (1776–1832), 520
sputtering, 132
SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices), 236
Squire, John, 465
Squire, Larry, 540
Srinivasan, Mandyan, 519
s states, 46, 47, 49–50, 60, 70
stable equilibrium, 55
stacking faults, 127–8, 214, 216
mechanisms, 127
Stadlerr, L. G., 399
stained glasses, 254
staining, 472
stainless steels, 77, 214
austenitic, 214–15
early studies, 152
stalactites, 164, 169
stalagmites, 169
stalks, formation, 405
Stanley, Wendel (1904–71), 359
Staphylococcus spp. (bacteria), 358–9, 376
Star of Africa Diamond, 178
starch, 91, 281, 282, 437, 439, 454
starch grains, 451
Starlinger, Peter, 424
stars, 1–2, 226
formation, 156
light spectra, 21–2
neutron, 6
stability, 10
surface temperatures, 5
thermonuclear reactions, 5–6, 10
see also Sun; supernovae
state of motion, 4
static electricity, 222
statistical mechanics, 78, 112–13
Staudinger, Hermann (1881–1965), 310, 313
steady state, 1
steam, 139
steam engines, 79
stearic acid, 272
steels, 212–13
alloy, 214–15
applications, 220–1
basic oxygen, 210
blister, 214
common, 211
crucible, 214
high-carbon, 213
medium, 213
melting point, 215
production, 203, 207–10
structural, 214
see also mild steel; open-hearth steel; stainless steels
Steensen, Niels (Nicholas Steno) (1638–86), 23–4, 98, 160
biographical notes, 511
brain studies, 511
Stein, John, 545
Stein, William (1911–80), 329
Steinhardt, Paul, 111
Steinheim (Germany), 514
stereochemical principle, 286
stereoisomerism, 277
stereoisomers, 280, 281, 287
stereospecific catalysis, 319
steric effects, 327
steric hindrance, 268, 313, 314, 319, 343, 355
Sterling Hill (New Jersey, USA), 161
steroids, 299, 448
synthesis, 286
Stevenson, Robert Louis (1850–94), Treasure Island (1883), 527
Stickgold, Robert, 540
sticky ends, 357, 361
stigma, 458
stilbite, 166
stimulated emission, 235
stimuli, non-animal, 7
stimulus-response paradigm, 517, 521–2, 533, 546
Stinson, T. W., 295
Stock, Alfred (1876–1946), 285
stoichiometry, 186–7
stomata, 445, 450
stone, 25
definition, 189
Stone Age, 201
Stoner, Edmund (1899–1968), 242
Stoney, George Johnstone (1826–1911), 29, 150
Stow, John, 219
straight lines, 21
strain energy, 123
strain point, glasses, 248
strains, 95
Strassmann, Fritz (1902–1980), 43, 46
stream of consciousness, 525
Streptococcus spp. (bacteria), 376
stress-corrosion cracking, 220
stresses, 95, 116
and creep, 135–6
striations, 260
striatum, 545–6
striking the colour, 255
stringed instruments, vibrations, 34–5, 47
stroma, 451
strong acids, 144
strong nuclear forces, 1
strontium salts, flame test, 32
Stroop, John Ridley (1897–1973), 548
Stroop interference, 548–9
structural complexity, 365
structural formulae, conventions, 268
structural genes, 356
structural steel, 214
structural tissue, 487
Strutt, John William, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919), 35, 255
Stukeley, William (1687–1765), 9
style, 458
styrene, 321
Styrofoam, 313
subatomic particles, 31, 45–6, 137
subgrains, 218
sub-shells, 50
substances, pure, 25
substantia nigra, 502
substituents, 286
substitutional impurities, 126
substrates, 353, 355–6
succinate, 384
succinic acid, 174
sucrase, 381
sucrose, 271, 280, 440
Sudbury (Canada), 276
Süffert, Fritz, 408
sugar, 88–9
physical states, 85
sugar cane, 442
sugars, 280–2, 281, 335, 374–5
plant, 281, 440–1
sulfa drugs, 355
sulfanilamide, 355
sulfates, 164, 170, 196
sulfides, 164, 170
sulfovinic acid, 266, 271
sulfur, 61–2, 95, 164, 169, 196, 317–18
occurrence, 164
sulfuric acid, 144, 271
Sulston, John, 365
Sumerians, 480, 493
Sumer (Iraq), 201
Sumner, James (1887–1955), 354
Sun, 2, 15, 48
cometary orbits, 10
eclipses, 10
total, 5
as energy source, 433
formation, 156
gravitational forces, 4
and planetary orbits, 14
surface temperature, 5
sundews, 442, 445
sunsets, colours, 255
superconducting magnets, 202
superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), 236
superconductivity, 232–3, 284–5
discovery, 229
superconductors, 229, 231
high-temperature, 233
organic, 284–5
supercooled liquids, 85, 245
supercooling, 131
supercurrents, 233
superionic conductors, 186
superior colliculus, 483, 486, 499
Superior, Lake, 169
supernatural, 7
supernovae, 6, 10, 156
discovery, 14
suprachiasmatic nucleus, 553
surface tension, 85–6, 131, 143
plasma, 301
Surtees, Robert Smith (1803–64), 460
Surtsey (Iceland), 173
survival of the fittest, 364, 392
survival instinct, 7–9
Sutherland, Earl (1915–74), 503
Sverdlovsk (Russia), 364
Swan, David, 430
Swan, Joseph (1828–1914), 309
Swanscombe (UK), 514
Sweden, 170
Swinburne, James (1858–1958), 310
Syene (Egypt), 12
syenite, 168, 175
Symbiidae, 420
Symbion pandora (cycliophoran), 420
symmetry, 129
centres of, 103
definition, 103
lattice, 107, 112
orbital, 287
point, 106
rotational, 106, 108, 121
screw, 107, 108, 292
similarity, 130
ten-fold, 110–11
translational, 106, 108, 121, 134
symmetry operations, 103–7
Symons, Robert, 361
synapses, 466, 471–3, 500
excitory, 500
inhibitory, 500
synapsis, 396, 397
synaptic gap, 471
synaptic membrane, 505
synaptosomes, 489
syndiotactic polymers, 311, 313
Synge, Richard (1914–94), 330
synthetic textiles, 272
Système international d’unit és, 29, 31, 58
Szent-Györgyi, Albert (1893–1986), 283, 382, 461
Szent-Györgyi, Andrew, 463
T2 bacteriophage, 355
T4 bacteriophage, 345, 351
T4 cells, 359
tabula rasa, 529
Tachardia lacca (insect), 307
tactile mode, 535
tactile sense, 474
tadpoles, metamorphosis, 488
Takayama, S., 260
talc, 166
Talmage, David, 420
talose, 280
Tammann, Gustav (1861–1938), 153
tandem repeats, 364
Tangl, Edward, 408
tanning, 273
Tanret, Charles (1847–1917), 280, 281
tape recording, and entropy, 81–2
Taq polymerase, 364
tar, 177, 264
Taraxacum spp. (dandelions), mutations, 456
tarmac, 264
tarpaulin, 264
taste, 286
Tattersall, Ian, 514, 515
Tatum, Edward, 399, 401
Taurus, 8
Tautz, Jürgen, 519
taxol, 398
taxonomy, 419–20
issues, 513
Taxus baccata (yew), 439
Taylor, Edwin, 398
Taylor, Geoffrey (1886–1975), 118
Taylor, William, 184
T-cells, 417–18
helper, 417
killer, 417
surface proteins, 417–18
Tchad, 514
tectum, 502
Teflon, 312, 320
Teitelbaum, Philip, 543, 544
tektosilicates, 166
telencephalon, 483
television, 46
television screens, 297
tellurium, 251–2
telomerase, 431
telomeres, 430–1
telomere terminal transferase, 431
telophase, 395, 396, 397
Temin, Howard (1934–94), 359
temperature
concept of, 80
critical, 83, 87
temporal association cortex, 483
temporal lobe, 483, 484, 485
Ten Commandments, 23
tendons, 487
Tennessee (USA), 44
tensile deformation, 95
tensile strength, 449
tepui, 427
Terenius, Lars, 503
N,N′-terephthalylidenebis(4-n-butylaniline), structure, 293
Tertiary, 164, 174
tertiary alcohols, 272
tessellations, 111
tetracalcium aluminoferrite, 190
tetrachloromethane, 269
tetragonal system, 99
tetrahedrane, 285
Tetrahymena spp. (protozoa), 373
tetramethyltetraselenafulvalene (TMTSF), structure, 284
tetrapods, 425–6
tetrathiafulvalene–tetracyanoquinodimethane (TTF–TCNQ), 285
tetrodotoxin, 469
Texas (USA), 164
textiles, 272
synthetic, 272
thalamus, 483
thalidomide, 408
Thames Tunnel (UK), 188
Theia, 4, 175
theobromine, 491
theology, 15
see also religion
theophylline, 491
theoretical chemistry, 270
theories, early, 14
theory of mind, 542
thermal activation, crystal defects, 125
thermal agitation, 78
proteins, 335
thermal conductivity, 112, 115
ceramics, 187
crystals, 112–13
thermal energy, 4, 85, 225–6, 245
thermal expansion, 114
thermally activated hopping, 251
thermal motion
chaos, 82
gases, 82
thermal receptors, 474
thermal sense, 474
thermodynamical stability, 96
thermodynamics, 23, 78–85, 125, 133, 363
first law of, 79
second law of, 79, 80
thermonuclear reactions, 1
solar system formation, 155–6
in stars, 5–6, 10
thermoplastics, 316
thermosetting polymers, 316, 320–1
thermotropic liquid crystals, 293
Thermus aquaticus (bacterium), Taq polymerase, 364
thiamine, 383–4
thixotropy, 91
Thoma, Fritz, 358
Thomas, Jean, 357
Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist (1850–85), 209
Thompson, Benjamin, Count Rumford (1753–1814), 80, 81
Thompson, F. W., 353–4
Thompson, Kirk, 536
Thomson, George (1892–1975), 35
Thomson, J. Nicol, 373
Thomson, Joseph John (1856–1940), 29–30, 31, 44-5, 150, 223, 225
Thomson, William, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), 80–1, 112
thought
conscious, 529
motor theory of, 515–17
nature of, 511
private, 508
three-centre bonding, 286
Three Wise Men, 10, 13
threonine, 353
thunder, 7
thylakoids, 451
thymine, 335, 342, 343, 346
structure, 282
thyroid glands, 409–11
tidal waves, 159
Tiktaalik rosea (fossil fish), 418
time, 21
creation, 1
dilation, 20
pole in, 1
tin, 99, 105, 150, 201
abundance, 155
ores, 170
tissue differentiation, 401, 402, 407
titanium dioxide, 249
TMTSF (tetramethyltetraselenafulvalene), 284
TMV (tobacco-mosaic virus), 355, 358, 359
toadstools, 489
tobacco-mosaic virus (TMV), 355, 358, 359
Todaro, George, 429
Todd, Alexander (1907–97), 372
toffee, 85
toluene, 270
Tommerup, Niels, 394
Tonegawa, Susuma, 422
tools, early, 513
topaz, 168
top-down influences, 549, 550, 551, 555
Toros-Menalla (Tchad), 514
total eclipses, 5
tourmaline, 168, 277
Townes, Charles (1915–), 238
Townsend, John (1868–1957), 29, 31, 223
trace compounds, 191
tracheids, 437–8, 439
trachyte, 168, 175
trains, moving, 18–19
transcription, 341, 346, 410, 421–2
homeotic, 410
transcription factors, 410, 415
transfer RNA see tRNA
trans-form, 277
transistors, 46
early, 224, 232
junction, 232
mechanisms, 231–2
n–p–n, 231, 232
p–n–p, 231
point-contact, 232
transition elements, 241, 254
transitions, inter-band, 253
transitive inference, 552
translation, 346, 421–2
translational symmetry, 106, 108, 121, 134
translocation, 394
transmission electron microscopy, 217
advantages, 122
cell studies, 371
dislocation studies, 123
transmutation
artificial, 39
elements, 137
trans- nomenclature, 315
transpiration, 434, 435–6, 445, 446–9
transplantation, organs, 417
transponsons, 424
transport mechanisms, active, 447
transport properties, 93
transposable genetic elements, 414, 424
transposons, 414
transverse tubules, 465
transverse vibrations, 94
Transylvania, 174
trapping, 252
trees, 458
annual rings, 443
deciduous, 458
vascular system, 437–8
tremolite, 166
tricalcium aluminate, 188, 190
tricalcium silicate, 190
trichloromethane, 269
triclinic system, 98
tridymite, 247
Trifolium dubium (yellow trefoil), 446
triglycerides, 302
neutral, 303
trigonal system, 98
trihydrol, 141
triolein, 275
structure, 274
triose phosphate, 454
tripalmitin, 275
triple bonds, 270
triradii, 132
trisaccharides, 280
tris(2,2′-bipyridine)ruthenium, 456
tristearin, 275
tRNA, 342, 346, 348, 418
roles, 349
structure, 343
Trochodendron aralioides (wheel tree), 442
Tropic of Cancer, 12, 15
Tropic of Capricorn, 15
tropocollagen, 487
tropomyosin, 464, 465
troponin, 464, 465
trypsin, 330, 381
tryptophan, 325
tsunamis, 159
TTF–TCNQ (tetrathiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodimethane), 285
tubulin, 398
α-tubulin, 373
Β-tubulin, 373
Tulving, Endel, 540
tumours, 358, 429
growth, 296
tungsten, 214
tungsten carbide, 182
tunnel effect, 236
tunnelling, 390
tunnelling probability, 390
turbulence, 301
turgor pressure, 439, 447
Turkmenistan, 202
Turnbull, David, 84, 93, 260
turquoise, 183, 196
Tutankhamen (fl. 1336–1327 BC), 205
tuyères, 207
Twain, Mark (Samuel Langhorne Clemens) (1835–1910), 524
twin boundaries, 127, 128, 132
twins
dizygotic, 543
identical, 411–12
monozygotic, 543
twist, liquid crystals, 295–6
twist boundaries, 185
twist disclinations, 132
twisted nematics, 293, 298–9
two-phase systems, 89
Twort, Frederick (1877–1950), 358–9
Tyndall, John (1820–93), 91, 95
Tyndall effect, 91, 95, 270
Tzagoloff, Alex, 353
ubiquinone see coenzyme Q
Uhlenbeck, George (1900–88), 48
Ultrabithorax gene, 410
ultrasonic radiation, 304
ultrasonic waves, 94–5
ultraviolet catastrophe, 35
ultraviolet radiation, 16, 32, 34, 35
umklapp processes, 114
uncertainty principle, 38
unconscious cognition, 521
unconsciousness, functions, 551
Ungar, George, 504
Unitarian Church (Oak Park, Illinois), 190, 199
United Nations (UN), 151
United States of America (USA), 427
unit fibre, 358
unit membranes, 302
units, 29
atomic-scale, 31
Universe
age of, 154
big bang, 1
composition, 156
energy of, 79
and entropy, 82
expansion, 1, 17, 21–2
mass of, 3
motion, 4
size of, 3, 22
steady state, 1
thermal death of, 79
unprovoked inputs, 529–31
unsaturated bonds, 302, 308
unsaturated molecules, 270, 317
unstable equilibrium, 55
Untersulzbachtal (Austria), 166
Unwin, Nigel, 409, 472
Upatnieks, Juris (1936–), 240
uracil, 335, 346, 352
structure, 282
Ural Mountains (Russia), 170
uraninite, 158
uranium
early studies, 31
nuclear fission, 43, 46, 137, 138
ores, 158
uranium dioxide, 186–7, 188
urea, 261, 262, 282, 329
urea cycle, 382
urine, 491
Ur (Iraq), 171
Ursa Major, 2–3
Ussher, James (1581–1656), 154
Utah (USA), 170, 176–7
vacancies, 87, 119, 124–6, 131, 137, 230–1
anion, 126
cation, 126
ceramics, 185–6
diffusion, 136
motions, 124, 125–6
vaccination, 358
vacuoles, 369, 370, 372, 439
vacuum, electromagnetic radiation through, 34
vacuum tubes, 230
valence bands, 226, 227, 228, 234
valence electrons, 66, 284
valence orbit electrons, 71
valence orbits, 63–4
valences, 63–4, 150, 264
minimal, 64
polymers, 310
Valentine, Robert, 418
valine, 487
vanadium, 212
van Buskirk, John, 350
van der Waals bonds, 67–70, 75, 198, 439
van de Waals, Johannes (1837–1923), 69, 84
Van Essen, David, 499
van Helmont, Johann (1577–1644), 434
Van Niel, Cornelis (1897–1985), 449
van’t Hoff, Jacobus (1852–1911), 277
van Vleck, John (1899–1980), 242
vapour condensation, 256
vapour phase, 83
vapour pressure, 82–3
Variolae vaccinae (cowpox), 358
varnishes, 271, 307, 320–1
vascular bundles, 436
vascular cells, 436
vascular system
plants, 435
trees, 437–8
vectors, 18
Vedmedenko, Elena, 111
vegatal hemisphere, 412
vein minerals, 165, 169–71
veins, plants, 435
velocity, and speed compared, 18
Venezuela, 427
venous blood, 484
Venter, J. Craig, 365
ventral tegmentum, 502
Venus
eclipses, 5
passages, 5
Venus flytraps, 442, 445
verhakung see dislocations
Vertebrata, 513
Verwey, E. J. W., 232
Vesalius, Andreas (1514–64), De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543), 460, 461
vesicles, 291, 304, 373, 439, 471, 473
lipid, 303
phagocytotic, 374
pinocytotic, 374
vessel members, 437
vessels, 437
Vetter, Günter, 552
vibrational spectroscopy, 141
vibration frequencies, crystals, 112
vibrations
internal, 270
transverse, 94
Victoria, Queen (1819–1901), 400
Vignaud, Patrick, 514
Villard, Paul (1860–1934), 31
vinegar, 273
Vinylite, 312–13
vinyl polymers, 312–13
Virchow, Rudolf (1821–1902), 367
viroids, 360–1
viruses, 323, 345, 355, 356, 358–9, 428
assembly, 359
carcinogenic, 429
viscoelastic liquids, 96
viscose rayon, 309
viscosity, 93
glasses, 245
viscous fluids, 92
visible light, 16
visible radiation, 32
vision, 474
biochemistry, 475
colour, 479, 481–2
mechanisms, 494
saccadic movements, 547
sense of, 479–82
visual cortex, 493, 496–7, 550
visual field, 527
visual mode, 535
vital amines, 283
vital force theory, 261
vitalism, 461, 506
vitamin A, 283, 480
deficiency, 482
structure, 475
synthesis, 287
vitamin B, 283
vitamin B1, 383–4, 399
vitamin B6, 393
vitamin B12, synthesis, 287
vitamin C, 283
deficiency, 488
vitamin D, deficiency, 491
vitamins, 354
and amines, 283
origin of term, 283
plants, 442
vitelline layers, 368
Vitko, J., 249
Vitreloy, 258
vitrification, 199–200
Vogel, E., 287
voids, 132, 220
nucleation, 138
volcanic plugs, 178
volcanoes, 149, 161, 173
Volta, Alessandro (1745–1827), 148, 222, 223
Volterra (Italy), 160
von Baeyer strain theory, 270
von Fersen, Lorenzo, 552
vulcanization, 308, 309, 316, 317–18, 318
Wagner, Gottfried, 457
Wainwright, Thomas (1927–), 93
Walker, John (1941–), 390, 391
Wallace, Alfred (1823–1913), 392, 424
Wallach, Donald, 302
Wang, Rong, 258
Wang, T. T., 260
Warburg, Otto (1883–1970), 381, 389
Warner, Jonathan, 342
Warren, B. E., 246
Warshel, Arieh, 355
warty layers, 438, 444
Washington, George (1732–99), 219
water, 139–53, 374–5
abundance, 139
boiling, 82–3
breakdown, 158
electrical conductivity, 148
electrolysis, 148
liquid state theories, 141–2
mechanical, 198
meniscus, 85–6
molecular formula, 53, 64, 139
reactions
with alite, 195
with aluminate, 195
with belite, 195
with cement, 193, 194-6
with ferrite, 195
roles, in plants, 445–6
sigma bonds, 71
as solvent, 144
structural formula, 64
water–alcohol system, 85
water–gel interface, 194
water molecules
dissociation, 142–3
shape, 141
structure, 139
Waterston, Robert, 365
water vapour, 57, 78, 88, 139, 158
Watson, James (1928–), 336, 342–3, 359
Watson, John (1878–1958), 521
Watson–Crick diagram, 336
Watt, James (1736–1819), 79
Watts-Tobin, Richard, 351
Waugh, W. A., 283
wave amplitude, 34
wave equation, 226
wave frequency, 34
wave intensity, 37
wavelength, 16, 17, 34
wave motion, 30, 34, 112
attenuation, 95
wave–particle duality, 35, 36–7, 112, 253
waves
longitudinal, 93, 94
properties, 34
ultrasonic, 94-5
wave states
atoms, 69
localized, 251
wave velocity, 34
weak acids, 144
weak nuclear forces, 1
Webb, James, 237
Weber, H. H., 461
Weber, Wilhelm (1804–91), 241
wedge disclinations, 132
weeds, control, 443
Wegener, Alfred (1880–1930), 158–63
weight, 27
atomic, 26–7
equivalent, 150
weightlessness, 21
Weiman, Carl (1951–), 40
Weir, Alex, 552
Weir, Donald, 545
Weismann, August (1834-1914), 397, 411, 420
Weisskopf, Victor (1908–2002), 118
Weissmann, Gerald, 304
Weiss, Pierre (1865–1940), 241–2, 243
welding, 209, 210, 265
mild steel, 208
wells, 177
Wells, Frederick, 178
Wells, Samuel (1820–75), 520
Went, Fritz, 443
Wernicke, Karl (1848–1905), 496
what-is-being-reported-to problem, 538
wheat, 442
Whelan, Michael, 123, 216
whiskers, 220, 257
white blood cells see leukocytes
white cast iron, 213
Whitechapel Foundry (London), 219
white dwarfs, 8, 226
density, 5
formation, 5–6
surface temperatures, 5
white matter, 23–4, 511
White, Ray, 364
whorls, 132
Widmannstätten, Aloys von (1754–1849), 209, 210
Wiercinski, F. J., 465
Wiesel, Torsten, 493, 494, 495, 496–7
Wiesendanger, Roland, 111
Wight, Isle of, 160
Wigner, Eugene (1902–95), 137, 232
Wilcox, Ken, 361
Wilhelm, G., 350
Wilkins, Maurice (1916–2004), 341, 357
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, 17
willemite, 161
Willens, Ronald, 256
William III (1650–1702), 19
William of Normandy (William I of England) (c.1028–1087), 13
Williams, C., 296
Williams, Matthew, 551
Williams, Robley (1908–95), 359
Will-o’-t he-Wisp, 268
Wilsdorf, Heinz (1917–2000), 134
Wilson, Alan (1939–), 226, 227–8, 251
Wilson, H. V., 412–13
Wilson, Leslie, 398
Wilson, Robert (1936–), 17, 17
window glass, 184, 249
winds, 7
Windscale reactor (UK), 138
Winkler-Oswatitsch, Ruthild, 364
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, 544-5
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1889–1951), 548
Wittig, Georg (1897–1987), 286–7
Woese, Carl (1928–), 421
Wöhler, August (1819–1914), 217
Wöhler, Friedrich (1800–82), 261, 262, 282
Wolosewick, John, 373
Wolpert, Daniel, 545
Wolpert, Lewis (1929–), 405, 408
Wolynes, Peter, 331
Wood, Robert Williams (1868–1955), 239
wood, 25, 436
composition, 306
microstructure, 458
petrified, 164
radiocarbon dating, 42
seasoning, 459
structure, 458–9
wood alcohol see methyl alcohol
wood cells, 444
Woodward, Robert (1917–79), 287, 288
woody plants, 436
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth (Lincolnshire), 9
Wordsworth, William (1770–1850), 245
work, 4, 9
and energy, 80
and heat, 81
work hardening, 122–3
mechanisms, 134-5
working memory, 515, 529, 542–3
working point, glasses, 248
World Fair (1958), 107
World War I, 496
Wright, Elwood, 537
Wright, Frank Lloyd (1867–1959), 118, 190, 199
Wright, Sewall (1889–1988), 399
Wright, Woodring, 429
wrought iron
hardening, 214
and mild steel compared, 207–8
production, 204-5, 208
puddled, 206–7
Wyman, Jeffries, 354
Xanthophyta (yellow-green algae), 433
X chromosome, 393
xenon, 137
electron affinity, 74
xenon atoms, energy states, 46
xenon hexafluoroplatinate, 74
xenon tetrafluoride, 74
Xenopus spp. (African clawed frogs), embryo, 409
xerography, 252–3
X-ray diffraction, 99–100, 103, 152, 184
cellulose studies, 439
chromatid studies, 357
crystal structure studies, 101
DNA studies, 341
enzyme studies, 355
glassy state studies, 246, 247
myoglobin studies, 334, 484
protein studies, 333
X-rays, 16, 29, 34, 35, 137, 399
absorption, 228–9
discovery, 99
emission, 37
waves, 227
X-ray wavelength, 99
determination, 100
xylans, 280–2
xylem, 435, 436–7, 443, 458
xylem cells, 436
xylose, 280, 440, 442
Yan, Feng, 391
Y chromosome, 393
yeasts, 271, 381–2
Yellowstone National Park (USA), 364
Yingling, Charles, 532
Yorke, James, 428
Yoshida, Masasuke, 390
Young, Anne, 546
Young, John Zachary (1907–97), 467
Young, Thomas (1773–1829), 35, 74
colour vision theory, 481–2
interference studies, 30, 32–4, 89, 99, 101, 240
Young’s fringes, 32–4
Yukawa, Hideki (1907–81), 45
Zachariasen, Willie, 247
Zaikin, Albert, 361, 364
Zamecnik, Paul (1912–), 361
Zampighi, Guido, 409
Zappe, Hans, 236
Zea mays (corn), 414, 423–4
zeatin, 443, 448
Zeki, Semir, 499, 550
Zentgraf, Hanswalter, 358
zeolites, 186, 188, 260
zero-point energy, 83
Zeuthen, Jesper, 358
Zhabotinsky, Anatol, 361, 364
Zhabotinsky–Zaikin reaction, 361, 364, 407
Zhang, Shaowu, 519
Zhao, Wenjin, 427
Zhu, Min, 427
Ziegler, Karl (1898–1973), 312, 319
Zilva, S. S., 283
Ziman, John (1925–2005), 7, 251, 508
Ziman theory, 251
zinc, 146–7, 220, 223
abundance, 155
crystal structure, 120
ores, 170
polycrystals, 212
reactions, with hydrochloric acid, 53
zinc chloride
formation, 53
formula, 53
zinc–chlorine bonds, 53
zinc ions, 146
zinc plating, 151
zinc silicates, 161
zinc sulfate, 146
zinc sulfides, 170
Zinkernagel, Rolf, 417–18
zodiac, signs of, 3
zombie argument, 523, 538
zonula occludens, 374
zwitterionic molecules, 327, 328
zygotene stage, 396, 397
zygotes, 397, 401, 404–5, 411, 424, 458
zymase, 271