Abbott, A., 105, 108, 109, 753, 754, 756
Abernethy, B., 234, 245, 246, 255, 259, 471, 475, 476, 478, 479, 481, 483, 699
Abrahamowicz, M., 339
Abrahams, J., 715
Ackerman, P. L., 12, 15, 32, 34, 49, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 617, 727
Acton, B., 445, 448, 453
Adam, J., 326, 332
Adams, E. C., 624, 629
Adams, J. A., 150, 163, 475, 483
Adams, K. H., 399
Adams, M. M., 657, 662, 663, 671, 680
Adams-Webber, J. R., 24, 28, 206, 219
Adcock, R. A., 664, 665, 677
Adelman, L., 215, 218
Adelson, B., 25, 27, 51, 62, 373, 377, 378, 379, 384
Adesman, P., 527, 536
Adler, A., 757, 758
Adler, S., 490, 501
Adolph, K. E., 514, 516
Afflerbach, P., 237, 240
Agarwal, R., 376, 377, 378, 384
Agnew, 746, 760
Aguilar, J., 464, 468
Aguilera-Torres, 495, 502
Aguirre, G. K., 667, 668, 677
Ahissar, M., 268, 283, 666, 677
Ahmad, A. M., 243, 260
Ahmad, W., 106, 122
Ahmed, A., 616, 630
Ahn, W., 342, 352
Aikins, J. S., 95, 100
Ainsworth, L. K., 185, 200
Akin, O., 172, 179, 181
Alain, C., 475, 483
Alarcon, M., 563, 565
Alberdi, E., 174, 178, 181
Albert, M. L., 533, 535
Albert, R. S., 299, 300
Alder, T. B., 555, 566
Alderton, D. L., 279, 280, 283
Alexander, J. E., 564, 565, 567
Alexander, J. L., 371
Alexander, P. A., 24, 27
Alexander, R. A., 163, 378, 379, 384
Allaire, J. C., 732, 737
Allard, F., 3, 12, 19, 46, 67, 245, 259, 305, 306, 307, 309, 311, 318, 474, 476, 478, 479, 481, 483, 486, 505, 520, 693, 703, 709, 721, 730, 741
Allen, D., 245, 262
Allen, G., 508, 517
Allen, L., 164
Allen, N., 624, 630
Allen, S., 686, 702
Allen, S. W., 350, 352
Allerton, D. J., 252, 259
Allgaier, E., 369
Allison, T., 667, 668, 681
Allport, D. A., 513, 516
Allsop, J., 106, 120
Alsop, D. C., 664, 678
Altenmüller, E. O., 464, 465, 466, 468, 469, 470
Altiteri, P., 728, 740
Altom, M. W., 342, 352
Alvarado, M., 665, 678
Alway, D., 533, 537
Amabile, T. M., 399
Amalberti, R., 641, 649
Amann, M., 662, 679
Amarel, S., 96, 103
Ambrosino, R., 97, 100
Ames, C., 709, 716, 719
Amidzic, O., 533, 534
Amirault, R. J., 5, 14, 41, 46, 69
Amorim, M.-A., 274, 285
Amunts, K., 565, 664, 665, 679
Anastakis, D. J., 348, 350, 353
Anderson, A. W., 508, 517, 667, 668, 676, 678
Anderson, C. H., 667, 681
Anderson, D., 709, 719
Anderson, D. K., 255, 261
Anderson, J. R., 3, 17, 46, 60, 62, 87, 88, 100, 229, 238, 267, 283, 350, 385, 405, 415, 475, 479, 483, 600, 601, 606, 617, 629, 684, 694, 700, 725, 737
Anderson, N., 450
Anderson, U., 26, 29
Andorka, R., 305, 316
Andrade, H. G., 626, 629
Andrews, E. J., 213, 219
Angelergues, R., 560, 566
Anjoul, F., 32, 38
Annandale, E., 109, 120
Annett, J., 187, 189, 191, 199
Anschutz, L., 549, 550
Antell, S. E., 555, 565
Antonakis, J., 621, 624, 629
Antonelli, M., 533, 537
Antonis, B., 513, 516
Antons, C., 746, 758
Archer, W., 494, 501
Aretz, A., 250, 253, 260
Argyris, C., 623, 629
Aristotle, 5, 17, 574, 582
Ark, T. K., 350
Armstrong, A. A., 406, 411, 418
Armstrong, N., 716, 720
Arnason, H. H., 783, 784, 785
Arnold, L., 348, 352
Arocha, J. F., 52, 66, 88, 100, 179, 180, 181, 183, 235, 240, 445, 448, 452, 598, 599, 610
Arroyo, M., 212, 218
Arutyunyan, G. H., 514, 516
Arvidson, R. E., 134, 144
Asberg, K., 699, 702
Aschersleben, G., 272, 285, 511, 518
Ashburner, J., 548, 551
Ashcraft, M. H., 280, 283, 560, 565
Atherton, M., 533, 534
Atkins, M. S., 251, 260
Atlas, R. S., 527, 530, 535, 600, 607
Atran, S., 180, 183
Atwood, M. E., 54, 64, 373, 375, 376, 377, 385
Augier, M., 42, 66
Augustyn, J. S., 16, 47, 505, 636, 666
Austin, E. J., 32, 37
Austin, G. A., 44, 62
Austin, J., 44, 62, 237, 238
Ausubel, D. P., 211, 218
Avery, R. J., 304, 316
Avidan-Carmel, G., 669, 679
Avila, E., 402
Avolio, B. J., 726, 741
Avrahami, J., 350
Azuma, A., 385
Azuma, H., 451
Babcock, R. L., 602, 611, 724, 727, 732, 733, 741
Bachmann, T., 524, 534
Bäckman, L., 548, 549, 550, 551, 593, 606
Baddeley, A. D., 58, 62, 661, 677
Badum, A., 443, 451
Bagozzi, R. P., 435, 436
Bahrick, H. P., 602, 607
Baird, L. L., 725, 737
Baker, C. I., 669, 677
Baker, J., 316, 481, 483
Baker, K., 209, 215, 221
Baltes, M. M., 731, 737
Baltes, P. B., 547, 549, 550, 551, 602, 607, 724, 725, 727, 730, 731, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 758
Baluch, B., 481, 484, 693, 701
Balzer, R., 222
Bamber, C., 448, 450
Bamberger, J., 297, 300
Banaji, M. R., 205, 218
Bandura, A., 158, 163, 444, 449, 706, 707, 709, 712, 713, 719, 722, 757, 758
Bangert-Drowns, R. L., 79, 85
Bangsbo, J., 261
Banich, M. T., 735, 739
Bank, T. E., 406, 417
Bann, S., 352
Bansal, V. K., 255, 261
Banton, L., 462, 467
Baraduc, P., 671, 677
Barber, P., 205, 218
Bard, C., 475, 485
Bard, M., 471, 475, 476, 485
Bar-Eli, M., 475, 487
Barfield, W., 379, 384
Baria, A., 474, 484
Barlow, F., 554, 565
Barnes, J., 5, 17
Barnes, L. L., 496, 503
Barnett, S. M., 598, 599, 607
Baron, J. N., 424, 436, 754, 758
Barrett, G. V., 163
Barrick, M. R., 157, 163
Barrington, D., 457, 467
Barrows, H. S., 25, 28, 46, 47, 62, 350, 351, 352
Barry, J. R., 478, 485
Barry, N., 461, 467
Bart, W. M., 533, 534
Bartlett, F. C., 44, 55, 62, 542, 550
Barton, K., 577, 582
Barton, R., 491, 501
Bassignani, F., 272, 273, 286
Bassok, M., 23, 27, 764, 785
Bates, J., 495, 502
Bateson, A. G., 378, 379, 384
Batra, D., 376, 384
Battaglia, D. A., 405, 411, 418
Baudry, M., 508, 518
Baxter, H. C., 411, 418
Baylis, G. C., 272, 285
Baylor, G. W., 530, 534
Bazerman, C., 115, 120
Beamer, M., 314, 316
Beauchamp, M. R., 448, 449
Beaudoin, G., 664, 676, 680
Becerra-Fernandez, I., 217
Becher, J. C., 174, 178, 181
Becker, B. J., 563, 565
Becker, G. S., 14, 17, 747
Bédard, J., 4, 17, 23, 27, 686, 700
Bee, B., 495, 501
Beek, P. J., 472, 476, 477, 480, 484, 485, 486, 514, 516, 520
Behrmann, M., 668, 669, 677, 681
Beier, M. B., 160, 161, 163
Beier, M. E., 12, 34, 37, 49
Beilock, S. L., 15, 361, 369, 475, 479, 484, 513, 516
Beinlich, I. A., 89, 102
Belkin, A., 579, 583
Bell, B. S., 440, 446, 450, 451
Bell, J. A., 710, 722
Bell, J. F., III, 134, 144
Bellenkes, A. H., 249, 259, 362, 369
Bellows, N., 628, 631
Belohoubek, P., 448, 450
Ben-Bashat, D., 668, 669, 680
Benbow, C. P., 34, 36, 37, 563, 564, 565, 567
Bender, W. W., 345, 353
Bendix, R., 120
Beneke, W. M., 711, 719
Bengtsson, S. L., 674, 677, 696, 700
Benke, T., 560, 566
Benner, P. E., 12, 17
Bennett, J. S., 97, 100
Bennett, S. J., 246, 247, 262, 476, 477, 487
Ben-Shoham, I., 356, 357, 360, 371
Benson, R. R., 668, 680
Berardi-Coletta, B., 230, 238
Bereiter, C., 82, 86, 297, 300, 391, 402
Bereiter, S., 400
Berg, C. A., 88, 101
Bergen, P. C., 347, 353
Berger, R. C., 527, 530, 535, 600, 607
Beringer, D. B., 356, 357, 367, 368, 370
Berliner, D. C., 173, 183
Berliner, H., 525, 534
Berliner, P., 458, 467
Berlyne, D. E., 44, 62
Bernard, H. R., 129, 142
Bernasconi, P., 480, 484
Berners-Lee, 99, 101
Berninger, V. W., 399
Bernoulli, D., 441, 449
Bernstein, M., 323, 333
Bernstein, N. A., 479, 484, 516
Berry, C., 323, 332
Berryman, R. G., 235, 240
Berstein, L. M., 26, 27
Berti, S., 465, 470
Bertini, G., 269, 284
Bertrand, L., 247, 248, 262
Besson, M., 463, 467
Bettinardi, V., 672, 681
Bettman, J. R., 425, 437
Beurskens, A. J. H. M., 729, 737, 741
Bevan, A., 555, 556, 567
Bevans, G. E., 304, 316
Beyer, H., 129, 142
Beyerlein, M. M., 451
Beyerstein, B. L., 657, 677
Bhalla, M., 514, 516, 519
Bherer, L., 657, 664, 665, 666, 678
Biddle, S., 716, 720
Biederman, I., 268, 269, 283, 545, 550
Bieman, J. M., 374, 383, 387
Bienias, J. L., 496, 503
Billroth, T., 457, 467
Bilodeau, E. A., 265, 283
Bilodeau, I. M., 265, 283
Binder, C., 80, 84
Binet, A., 163, 223, 225, 236, 238, 523, 526, 530, 531, 534, 540, 550, 554, 565
Binier, B. L., 508, 517
Binks, M. B., 53, 64
Birdwhistell, R., 130, 142
Birnbaum, L., 222
Birren, J. E., 594, 607
Bisseret, A., 369
Bizzi, E., 507, 517
Bjork, R. A., 506, 518, 519
Blair, V., 444, 453
Blaiwes, A. S., 441, 452
Blakemore, S. J., 511, 516
Blehar, M. C., 606
Blendell, C., 411, 415, 417
Bleske-Rechek, A., 36, 37
Blickensderfer, E. L., 443, 453
Bliese, P. D., 448, 449
Bloch, S., 495, 502
Block, R. A., 305, 316
Blomberg, J., 142
Bloom, B. S., 3, 12, 13, 15, 17, 46, 62, 79, 84, 287, 288, 289, 300, 305, 316, 462, 467, 613, 629, 691, 700, 706, 707, 709, 711, 719
Bloom, P., 555, 568
Bloomfield, J., 9, 17
Blum, B. I., 131, 142
Blythe, T., 626–627, 632
Bock, J. K., 400
Boecker, H.-D., 384, 386
Boekaerts, M., 705, 713, 719
Bogler, R., 618, 631
Bogot, Y., 350
Bohmer, R. M., 444, 446, 448, 450
Boice, R., 400
Boldrini, M., 444, 450
Bolger, D. J., 670, 677
Bolger, F., 13, 17
Bolstad, C. A., 639, 641, 642, 644, 650
Bonaceto, C., 213, 218
Bond, N. A., Jr., 158, 164
Book, W. F., 685, 700, 727, 737
Boose, J. H., 97, 101, 204, 219, 405, 415
Bootsma, R. J., 480, 484
Bor, D., 616, 630
Bordage, G., 346, 350, 352
Borgeaud, P., 245, 259, 478, 484
Boring, E. B., 223, 238
Boring, E. G., 76, 84
Borman, W. C., 451
Bornschier, V., 120
Borrojerdi, B., 671, 681
Borron, J., 99, 101
Borstein, B. H., 405, 415
Boshuizen, H. P. A., 25, 26, 28, 29, 235, 238, 241, 343, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 463, 467, 494, 503, 599, 610
Bosman, E. A., 598, 602, 607, 727, 728, 731, 737, 738
Botwinick, J., 595, 607
Bouffard, V., 499, 501
Bourdieu, P., 118, 120, 757, 759
Bourdin, B., 400
Bourgouin, P., 664, 676, 680
Bourne, L. E., Jr., 276, 279, 281, 283, 284, 285
Boutilier, C., 498, 503
Bowden, K., 648, 651
Bowen, K. R., 160, 161, 163
Bower, G. H., 265, 283, 549, 552, 596, 607
Bower, J. M., 508, 517
Bowerman, W. G., 326, 332
Bowers, C. A., 215, 219, 244, 248, 253, 258, 261
Bowlby, J., 592, 607
Boyatzis, R. E., 157, 164
Boyes-Braem, P., 176, 179, 183
Boyle, J. D., 457, 467
Bracke-Tolkmitt, R., 508, 517
Bradburn, N. M., 237, 241
Bradshaw, G. L., 253, 258, 262
Brady, T. J., 668, 680
Brainin, E., 448, 453
Brainthwaite, A., 401
Bramer, M., 218, 405, 415
Bramwell, B. S., 321, 327, 332
Brand, A. G., 400
Brand, C. R., 32, 37
Brandfonbrener, A., 465, 467
Bransford, J., 626, 629
Branson, R. K., 5, 14, 41, 46, 69, 76, 77, 84
Brashers-Krug, T., 507, 517
Brasil-Neto, J. P., 671, 674, 681
Brauer, J., 349, 353
Bray, D. W., 33, 37
Bray, S. R., 448, 449
Breen, T. J., 180, 184, 356, 357, 365, 370
Brehe, S., 400
Brehmer, B., 243, 259, 450, 451, 627, 629
Breslauer, G. W., 580, 582
Brezovic, C. P., 408, 415, 417
Brialovsky, C., 353
Bridwell-Bowles, L., 400
Briggs, G. E., 278, 283
Briggs, L. J., 78, 85
Britt, A., 572, 583
Britton, B. K., 400, 401
Broadbent, D. E., 517, 596, 607
Broadway, K. P., 594, 595, 596, 610
Brochet, F., 268, 283
Brockett, O. G., 489, 501
Brody, G. H., 706, 719
Brooks, D., 508, 518
Brooks, L. R., 15, 47, 55, 235, 240, 250, 342, 346, 350, 351, 352, 353
Brou, R. J., 249, 260
Brown, A., 58, 62
Brown, E. S., 433, 438
Brown, I. D., 356, 357, 360, 369
Brown, J. S., 46, 48, 67, 623, 629
Brown, M., 350
Brown, N. R., 374, 375, 377, 384
Brown, R., 58, 62
Brown, S., 267, 284
Bruer, J., 117, 123
Bruhn, E., 498, 501
Brun, W., 445, 448, 449
Bruner, J. S., 44, 62, 191
Brunk, C. A., 97, 102
Brunswik, E., 157, 163
Bryan, W. L., 11, 12, 17, 225, 238, 266, 267, 282, 283, 474, 484, 509, 510, 517, 685, 689, 700
Bryant, D., 172, 183, 211, 218, 598, 599, 610, 728, 740
Bryant, W. K., 304, 316
Bryman, A., 176, 182, 205, 219
Buchanan, B. G., 12, 14, 43, 48, 61, 62, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 130, 135, 142, 204, 219
Buchner-Jeziorska, A., 107, 120, 121
Bühler, K., 225, 228, 238
Bukstel, L., 50, 63
Bullemer, P., 274, 275, 286, 351, 512, 519
Bullis, R. C., 618, 622, 630
Bunderson, J. S., 446, 450
Bundy, D. A., 621, 632
Bunge, S. A., 664, 665, 677
Buonomano, D. V., 657, 677
Burchell, G., 111, 121
Burgess, N., 548, 551, 592, 673, 674, 675, 679, 680
Burgess, T., 624, 630
Burgess-Limerick, R., 483
Burian, K. V., 497, 501
Burke, C. S., 15, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 448, 450, 451, 452, 453
Burns, B. D., 350
Burns, C. M., 209, 210, 211, 218
Burns, K., 213, 218
Burton, A. M., 97, 102, 170, 176, 180, 182, 183, 198, 200, 206, 215, 220, 222, 736, 745, 759
Burwitz, L., 245, 246, 256, 262, 475, 477, 478, 487
Butterworth, B., 16, 59, 60, 235, 553, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 564, 565–566, 567, 675, 693
Button, G., 128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 135, 138, 142, 143
Buyer, L. S., 230, 238
Byard, L., 429, 437
Bynner, J., 553, 566
Byrd, M., 593, 608
Cabeza, R., 661, 662, 664, 677
Cacciabue, P. C., 188, 200, 205, 220
Cadopi, M., 499, 502
Caicco, M., 498, 503
Calder, A., 773, 785
Calderwood, R., 171, 182, 192, 200, 206, 209, 221, 403, 404, 406, 407, 408, 410, 415, 416, 417, 436, 437, 451, 529, 535, 639, 650
Calkins, V., 348, 352
Callahan, J. S., 734, 737
Calvin, S., 516, 517
Calvo-Merino, B., 672, 677
Camerer, C. F., 13, 17, 433, 436, 686, 700
Caminiti, M. F., 348, 353
Cammarota, A., 671, 674, 681
Camp, C. J., 549, 550
Campbell, D. J., 374, 375, 377, 381, 384
Campbell, D. T., 760
Campbell, J. P., 443, 450
Campbell, J. I .D., 280, 283, 560, 566
Campillo, M., 708, 724
Campion, M. A., 187, 200, 384, 387, 448, 450
Campitelli, G., 174, 182, 531, 532, 533, 535, 536
Cañas, A. J., 212, 213, 218, 219
Canavan, A. G. M., 508, 517
Candia, V., 466, 468
Candolle, A. de, 321, 326, 327, 328, 332
Cannon, J. R., 356, 357, 361, 367, 368, 370
Cannon, M. D., 446, 448, 450
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., 439, 440, 441, 443, 450, 453
Cantor, N. F., 73, 84
Caplan, J., 380, 385
Caplan, R. A., 425, 436
Cappa, S. F., 667, 668, 679
Cappelletti, M., 557, 566
Caramazza, A., 400, 560, 567, 670, 681
Carbotte, R., 349, 353
Card, S. K., 188, 191, 199
Carello, C., 514, 517
Caretta, T. R., 617, 631
Carey, G., 725, 738
Carey, L., 401
Carey, S., 676, 678
Carff, R., 212, 218
Carlsen, J. C., 463, 469
Carlson, B., 289, 300
Carlson, R. A., 281, 286, 506, 519
Carlton, E., 117, 121
Carnahan, H., 471, 484
Carnot, M. J., 217, 220
Carpenter, P. A., 662, 664, 678, 680
Carr, T. H., 361, 369, 475, 479, 484, 508, 513, 516, 517
Carraher, D. W., 26, 29
Carreras, A., 464, 468
Carretero, M., 575, 576, 577, 580, 582, 584
Carroll, J. B., 32, 37, 78, 79, 84, 544, 550, 589, 590, 591, 599, 607
Carroll, J. M., 376, 386
Carroll, J. S., 444, 450
Carron, A. V., 448, 449
Carr-Saunders, A. M., 107, 121
Carter, F. J., 348, 351
Carter, I. D., 648, 650
Carter, M., 400
Carvajal, R., 212, 218
Cascio, W. F., 726, 740
Caspi, R., 350
Cass, J., 497, 501
Cassandro, V. J., 323, 332
Castejon, J. L., 618, 631
Castellan, N. J. J., 450
Castka, P., 448, 450
Castro, C. A., 448, 449
Catchpole, L. J., 411, 415, 417
Cattell, J. M., 305, 316, 321, 323, 332
Cattell, R. B., 32, 37, 592, 594, 595, 596, 599, 607, 609, 617, 630, 724, 737
Caulford, P. G., 349, 350, 352
Cauraugh, J. H., 256, 261, 476, 477, 484
Cauzinille-Marmèche, E., 532, 535
Cavanaugh, J. C., 593, 607
Cecil, J. S., 755, 759
Cellier, J. M., 369
Cerella, J., 726, 737
Chabris, C. F., 233, 238, 529, 531, 533, 535
Chaffin, R., 237, 238, 461, 463, 467, 698, 700
Chalmers, B., 211, 218
Chang, A., 352
Chang, R. W., 350
Chapin, R. S., 305, 316
Chapman, C., 257, 262
Chapman, G. B., 405, 415
Chapman, P. R., 356, 357, 362, 363, 364, 369, 371, 648, 651
Charness, N., 11, 16, 25, 34, 37, 44, 49, 50, 52, 54, 60, 63, 101, 168, 233, 234, 235, 238, 244, 259, 297, 300, 306, 316, 327, 328, 332, 348, 412, 416, 462, 463, 467, 478, 484, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 532, 533, 534, 535, 537, 538, 553, 560, 562, 564–565, 566, 588, 593, 598, 599, 601, 602, 606, 607, 608, 657, 685, 693, 696, 697, 699, 700, 723, 726, 727, 728, 730, 734, 737, 738, 740
Chase, W. G., 3, 11, 12, 17, 19, 27, 44, 46, 49, 50, 52, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63, 67, 96, 100, 103, 169, 171, 172, 173, 178, 182, 207, 218, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 244, 245, 259, 292, 297, 301, 305, 316, 318, 353, 369, 402, 431, 436, 474, 478, 484, 493, 501, 510, 517, 523, 527, 531, 535, 541, 542, 547, 550, 569, 582, 583, 601, 611, 613, 614, 629, 685, 689, 696, 700, 703, 727, 738, 768, 785
Chassin, M. R., 349, 351
Chein, J. M., 269, 285, 653, 656, 658, 659, 660, 661, 665, 678, 682
Chen, 476
Chen, C. H., 496, 501
Chen, D., 256, 261
Chen, E., 674, 682
Chen, Z., 50, 63
Cheney, F. W., 425, 436
Cheney, G., 498, 501
Cheng, P. C. H., 64, 527, 536
Chenowith, N. A., 400
Chevalier, A., 376, 384
Chi, M. T. H., 3, 5, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 37, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 63, 64, 83, 84, 95, 100, 101, 130, 131, 142, 163, 167, 169, 170, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 204, 205, 219, 228, 230, 238, 244, 259, 287, 301, 305, 316, 349, 351, 369, 376, 384, 406, 412, 415, 416, 436, 440, 450, 532, 535, 569, 583, 598, 653, 686, 700, 744
Chiang, W. C., 555, 568
Chiao, J. Y., 668, 679
Chidester, T. R., 446, 448, 450
Chien, J. M., 512, 519
Chiesi, H. L., 48, 51, 55, 63, 67, 179, 182, 471, 484
Chignell, M. H., 253, 260
Chipman, S. F., 185, 192, 199, 200, 201
Chipp, H. B., 772, 785
Chiu, M.-H., 230, 238
Chivers, P., 256, 260
Cho, K., 26, 27
Chomsky, N., 43, 63
Choudhry, N. K., 349, 350
Chow, R., 209, 219
Christal, R. E., 32, 37
Christensen, C., 26, 27
Christensen, H., 594, 607
Christensen, P. R., 158, 164
Christiaen, J., 533, 535
Christoffersen, K., 211, 222
Chulef, A. S., 598, 599, 609
Chun, M. M., 667, 680
Cianciolo, A. T., 12, 16, 32, 37, 91, 151, 163, 613, 621, 624, 625, 626, 629, 727
Cipolotti, L., 555, 559, 560, 563, 566, 568
Clancey, W. J., 12, 15, 45, 46, 63, 95, 98, 99, 101, 103, 116, 127, 135, 142, 143, 144, 206, 208, 219, 243, 745, 760
Clark, J., 673, 681
Clark, R. D., 323, 332
Clark, V. P., 668, 679
Clarkson, G. P., 236, 238, 526, 536
Clarkson-Smith, L., 736, 738
Clawson, D. M., 279, 283
Clayton, J. E., 97, 102
Cleary, T. J., 708, 709, 712, 713, 715, 716, 718, 719
Cleeremans, A., 274, 283
Clegg, B. A., 273, 283
Cleveland, A. A., 523, 535
Clifford, M., 716, 719
Clifton, J., 463, 467
Cline, J., 353
Clinton-Cirocco, A., 406, 407, 410, 417, 639, 650
Cobley, S., 237, 238, 305, 307, 316, 601, 608, 698, 701
Cockcroft, W. H., 553, 566
Coderre, S., 350
Coffey, J. W., 131, 143, 178, 183, 207, 208, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220
Cohen, A., 275, 283, 513, 517
Cohen, L., 559, 563, 566, 675, 678
Cohen, L. G., 670, 671, 674, 681
Cohen, M. S., 404, 405, 406, 416, 445, 450
Cohen, N. J., 735, 739
Cohen, R., 501
Cohen, R. G., 16, 47, 505, 507, 509, 517, 666
Cohen, R. L., 489, 496, 501
Colcombe, S. J., 657, 664, 665, 666, 678
Cole, J., 117, 123
Cole, R., 74, 84
Coley, J. D., 175, 180, 183, 184, 599, 610
Collani, 377, 378, 384
Collard, R., 510, 519
Colley, A., 462, 467
Collins, B. P., 46, 67
Colonia-Willner, R., 598, 599, 607, 621, 622, 629, 725, 728, 738
Colt, H. G., 254, 259
Combs, D. M., 102
Compton, P., 97, 102
Conditt, M. A., 512, 517
Connally, T., 422, 437
Connell, K. J., 350
Connolly, T., 403, 417
Connor, C. E., 669, 678
Consolini, P. M., 448, 451
Constable, R. T., 664, 665, 670, 677, 682
Contreni, J. J., 72, 73, 74, 75, 84
Converse, S., 440, 441, 443, 450, 453
Cook, C. R., 379, 386
Cook, E. F., 434, 437
Cook, S., 544, 552
Cooke, J., 72, 86
Cooke, N. J., 176, 182, 191, 192, 200, 443, 446, 450, 527, 530, 535, 600, 607
Cooke, N. M., 180, 184, 215, 219, 356, 357, 365, 370
Coombs, C. H., 405, 416
Coon, H., 725, 738
Cooper, D., 106, 109, 121
Cooper, D. E., 71, 84
Cooper, E. E., 545, 550
Cooper, R. G., Jr., 555, 568
Cooper, W. E., 509, 510, 517
Copeland, D. E., 593, 610
Corbet, J. M., 131, 143
Corcos, D. M., 465, 469, 727, 739
Cork, C., 462, 468
Corlett, E. N., 187, 200
Corrigan, J. M., 255, 260, 433, 436
Corrigan, S., 215, 221
Costello, A., 641, 642, 650
Côté, J., 14, 15, 60, 303, 314, 316, 474, 481, 483, 484, 693, 700, 714
Coughlin, L. D., 351
Coulson, R. L., 46, 56, 64, 83, 86, 249, 260, 351, 385, 675, 767, 786
Courchesne, E., 508, 517
Couture, B., 390, 400
Cowan, N., 50, 59, 63
Cowan, T., 540, 542, 546, 552
Cowley, M., 400, 699, 700
Cox, C., 321, 322, 323, 326, 327, 332
Coyle, T., 516, 517
Craft, J. L., 272, 286
Crager, J., 624, 625, 629
Craig, J. E., 75, 84
Craik, F. I. M., 385, 593, 607, 608
Craine, D., 498, 501
Cranberg, L., 533, 535
Crandall, B. W., 170, 171, 182, 183, 192, 200, 209, 212, 219, 220, 406, 407, 408, 415, 416, 417, 529, 535
Cratty, 473, 484
Crawford, M., 461, 467
Crawford, S. W., 254, 259
Cresswell, A. B., 348, 351
Crick, J. L., 363, 370, 648, 650
Crisp, F., 498, 499, 500, 503
Crivello, F., 554, 563, 564, 567, 568, 675, 681
Croghan, J. W., 204, 222
Croker, S., 64, 527, 536
Crompton, R., 106, 108, 111, 121
Cronbach, L. J., 163
Cronon, W., 575, 583
Crook, J. A., 598, 599, 608
Cross, F. L., 72, 73, 74, 84
Cross, T., 734, 737
Crossman, E. R. F. W., 517
Crovitz, H. F., 224, 238
Crowder, R. G., 205, 218, 265, 283
Crowley, R. S., 234, 238
Crozier, M., 754, 759
Crundall, D., 362, 364, 369, 371, 648, 651
Crutcher, R. J., 224, 238, 239, 462, 468
Csikszentmihalyi, M., 291, 299, 300, 400, 458, 468, 719, 766, 767, 785
Cullen, J., 176, 182, 205, 219, 473, 475, 486
Cunningham, A. E., 402
Curatola, L., 533, 537
Curley, S. P., 425, 438
Curnow, C., 319, 322, 323, 329, 330, 333, 689, 690, 703, 735, 741
Curran, T., 400
Currie, L., 648, 650
Curtis, B., 374, 380, 382, 385
Cuschieri, A., 348, 351
Cushing, K. S., 173, 183
Cusimano, M. D., 348, 350, 352, 353
Custers, E. J., 351
Dabringhaus, A., 565
Daffertshofer, A., 472, 477, 480, 484, 485, 486, 516
Dagenbach, D., 508, 517
Dahl, T., 615, 629
D’Alembert, J. L. R., 6, 7, 8, 18
Dallop, P., 499, 503
Dang, N., 671, 674, 681
Daniel, M. H., 32, 37, 725, 738
Darst, P. W., 314, 315, 316
Darzi, A., 250, 254, 261, 262, 347, 352
Das, T. L., 305, 316
Daston, L. J., 115, 121
Dattel, A. R., 15, 52, 94, 355, 365, 369, 666, 673
Dauphinee, W. D., 248, 353
Davenport, T. H., 217, 219
David, J.-M., 204, 219
Davids, K., 245, 246, 256, 262, 383, 385, 471, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 487, 691, 703
Davidson, J. E., 626, 630, 710
Davidson, J. W., 10, 18, 459, 461, 468, 469, 470, 692, 703, 725, 739
Davies, C., 109, 121
Davies, D. R., 730, 737, 741, 742
Davies, I. R. L., 174, 184, 268, 286
Davies, N., 75, 85
Davies, S. P., 377, 378, 385
Davis, D. A., 349, 350, 352
Davis, J. G., 376, 384
Davis, K. J., 358, 370, 693, 702
Davis, R., 12, 14, 43, 48, 87, 91, 95, 96, 97, 99, 101
Davison, A., 252, 258, 261
Dawes, R. M., 26, 28, 405, 416, 433, 436, 686, 700
Dawis, R. V., 158, 164
Day, D. V., 448, 450, 614, 628, 630
Day, L. J., 256, 259
Deakin, J. M., 14, 15, 60, 237, 238, 303, 305, 306, 307, 309, 311, 316, 318, 474, 478, 481, 483, 485, 486, 498, 499, 500, 503, 601, 608, 693, 698, 701, 703, 709, 714, 721, 730, 741
Dealey, W. L., 697, 701
Deary, I. J., 32, 37
Deblon, F., 641, 649
de Boishebert, 686, 703
Decortis, F., 208, 219
Deffenbacher, K. A., 186, 191, 200, 203, 205, 220, 244, 245, 260
Defries, J., 563, 565
Degner, S., 458, 460, 468
de Groot, A. D., 11, 13, 18, 23, 28, 41, 44, 49, 63, 169, 171, 182, 226, 231, 232, 238, 244, 260, 305, 316, 351, 478, 484, 523, 525, 527, 528, 529, 530, 535, 569, 583, 598, 599, 608, 685, 696, 701, 761, 785
Dehaene, S., 556, 559, 563, 566, 670, 675, 678, 681
Deiber, M. P., 662, 663, 679
De Keyser, V., 208, 219, 369
Dekker, S. W. A., 143, 199, 201, 208, 219
Delaney, P. F., 83, 85, 181, 182, 237, 238, 239, 268, 283, 543, 545, 550, 593, 598, 600, 608, 690, 701
Delazer, M., 560, 566
de Leeuw, N., 230, 238
Dell, G. S., 509, 517
Delp, N. D., 734, 739
DeMaio, J. C., 180, 184, 356, 357, 365, 370
Demarco, G., 312, 316
Dember, W. N., 429, 436
De Mille, A., 498, 501
Deming, W. E., 557, 567
Denes, G., 560, 567
Denison, J., 690, 701
Denney, N. W., 684, 701
Dennis, M., 618, 622, 630
Dennis, W., 324, 326, 332
Derr, M. A., 510, 519, 729, 740
DeShon, R. P., 442, 450
Desmond, J. E., 508, 517
D’Esposito, M., 63, 662, 664, 667, 668, 677, 678, 680
Destrebecqz, A., 274, 283
Détienne, F., 374, 377, 385
Detre, J. A., 664, 678
Detterman, D. K., 32, 37, 725, 738
Detweiler, M., 660, 663, 676, 682
Devlin, J. T., 670, 681
De Volder, A., 554, 563, 567, 675, 681
de Voogt, A., 524, 536
Dewalt, B. R., 129, 143
Dewalt, K. M., 129, 143
Dewey, J., 626, 630
Dholakia, U. M., 435, 436
d’Hondt, W., 533, 536
Diamond, R., 676, 678
Diaper, D., 185, 192, 199, 200
DiBello, L. A., 374, 375, 377, 384
Dick, F., 674, 682
Dickinson, T., 441, 453
Dickson, G. W., 381, 382, 387
Dickson, M. W., 441, 451
Diderot, D., 6, 7, 8, 18, 203, 219, 494, 501
Didierjean, A., 532, 535
Diedrich, F. J., 206, 215, 221, 480, 484
Diener, E., 437
Diener, H. C., 508, 517
Dietz, T. M., 120, 121, 753, 759
DiGirolamo, G. J., 273, 283
Dingwall, R., 107, 109, 110, 121
Dinse, R., 465, 470
Dippel, K., 746, 759
Disanto-Rose, M., 499, 501
Dise, M. L., 250, 260
Dissanayake, 476
Dixon, N. M., 624, 630
Dixon, R. A., 648, 650, 736, 738
Dizio, P., 512, 517
Djakow, I. N., 10, 18, 226, 238, 523, 533, 535
Djerassii, C., 91, 101
Doane, S. M., 248, 249, 259, 260, 261, 279, 280, 283, 356, 357, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371, 686, 701
Dobrin, D., 402
Dogan, M., 117, 121
Dogan, N., 401
Dolan, R. J., 555, 566
Doll, J., 10, 18, 533, 536
Domeshek, E. A., 405, 411, 418
Dominowski, R. L., 230, 238
Donaldson, G., 591, 593, 594, 595, 599, 609
Donaldson, M., 255, 260
Donlan, C., 554–559, 566
Dougals, A., 451
Donoghue, J. P., 671, 682
Donoghue, L., 107, 121
Donohue, B. C., 671, 679
Dörner, D., 243, 259
Dougherty, M. R. P., 431, 436
Dourish, P., 128, 131, 134, 138, 143
Douthitt, R. A., 304, 305, 316
Doverspike, D., 163
Dow, R. S., 508, 518
Dowdy, D., 400
Down, J., 462, 467
Doyle-Wilch, B., 501
Doyon, J., 671, 682
Dray, W., 571, 583
Drebot, M., 621, 625, 629
Drevdahl, J. E., 305, 316
Dreyfus, H. L., 12, 18
Dreyfus, S. E., 12, 18
Driskell, J. E., 410, 416, 443, 450
Drury, C. G., 187, 200
Druzgal, T. J., 662, 680
Duarte, M., 514, 520
Dubar, C., 106, 121
DuBois, D., 617, 630
Dubourdieu, D., 268, 283
Duda, J., 204, 219, 716, 720
Duffy, L. J., 481, 484, 693, 701
Duffy, T., 400
Duguid, P., 623, 629
Dumville, B. C., 443, 452
Duncan, J., 356, 357, 360, 369, 518, 616, 630
Duncan, K. D., 189, 199
Duncker, K., 41, 63, 168, 182, 224, 238
Dunn, J. C., 26, 29, 476
Dunning, D., 57, 65
Dunsmore, H. E., 376, 385
Dupui, P., 500, 502
Duran, A. S., 51, 64
Durant, W., 73, 74, 85
Durkheim, E., 107, 110, 121
Durlach, N. I., 465, 468
Duroux, B., 554, 560, 564, 567, 675, 681
Durso, F. T., 15, 52, 99, 180, 184, 248, 355, 356, 357, 364, 365, 366, 369, 370, 668, 673
Dutta, A., 19, 272, 284, 285
Dvorak, A., 697, 701
Dyer, J. L., 450
Eastman, R., 205, 220
Easton, C., 458, 468
Ebbinghaus, H., 49, 63
Ebeling, C., 525, 534
Eberhardt, J. L., 668, 679
Eccles, D. W., 203, 206, 208, 221, 473, 484
Edelman, G. M., 517
Edelman, S., 269, 284, 669, 679
Eden, G. F., 670, 682
Edmondson, A. C., 444, 446, 448, 450
Edwards, C. J., 555, 566
Edwards, P., 476, 487
Edwards, W., 424, 436
Egan, D. E., 50, 51, 63, 172, 179, 182
Egan, V., 32, 37
Eggleston, R. G., 193, 200
Ehn, P., 129, 130, 143
Ehrlich, K., 378, 386
Eid, J., 445, 448, 449
Eilers, A. T., 176, 183
Eisenstadt, J. M., 327, 332
Eisenstadt, M., 47, 63, 171, 182
Ekman, P., 493, 502
Ekornas, B., 445, 448, 449
Elander, J., 363, 369
Elbert, T., 465, 466, 468, 508, 517, 533, 534, 674, 678, 695, 701
Elchardus, M., 305, 316
El Guindi, F., 130, 143
Elias, J. L., 71, 85
Elias, N., 118, 121
Elliott, D. H., 304, 312, 317, 476, 487
Elliott, L. R., 244, 259
Ellis, H., 326, 332
Elm, W. C., 193, 201, 208, 222
Elms, A. C., 320, 332
Elo, A. E., 21, 28, 319, 322, 323, 329, 330, 332, 524, 536, 735, 738
Elstein, A. S., 26, 27, 44, 46, 47, 63, 88, 101, 351
Emanuel, T. W., 253, 258, 262
Emery, F. E., 129, 143
Emery, L., 664, 680
Emler, A. C., 405, 415
Emslie, H., 616, 630
Endsley, M. R., 16, 47, 52, 55, 213, 219, 248, 259, 364, 366, 369, 406, 416, 633, 634, 635, 638, 639, 641, 642, 644, 645, 646, 650, 651, 699, 733, 769
Engbert, R., 727, 729, 733, 734, 739
Engel, S. A., 669, 678
Engelien, A., 465, 470
Engelkamp, J., 496, 500, 501
Engelmore, R., 92, 101
Engeström, Y., 129, 135, 143, 144, 753, 759
Engle, R. W., 32, 37, 50, 51, 63, 64, 732, 738
Engstrom, R., 591, 593, 594, 595, 599, 609
Ennis, R. H., 626, 630
Ensley, M. D., 443, 446, 448, 451, 452
Entin, E. B., 244, 259, 406, 418
Entin, E. E., 406, 418, 443, 451
Epel, N., 400
Epstein, S. A., 5, 18
Epstein, T., 576, 583
Epstein, W., 25, 28
Erickson, K. I., 657, 664, 665, 666, 678
Ericson, M., 692, 702
Ericsson, K. A., 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 23, 24, 25, 28, 31, 37, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 64, 67, 70, 71, 75, 83, 85, 87, 96, 101, 105, 168, 176, 177, 181, 182, 183, 191, 200, 205, 219, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 241, 244, 248, 249, 251, 259, 261, 266, 279, 283, 284, 292, 297, 300, 305, 306, 307, 308, 311, 314, 316, 317, 321, 327, 332, 349, 351, 360, 365, 369, 370, 374, 375, 382, 383, 385, 386, 400, 405, 412, 416, 427, 431, 436, 458, 459, 460, 462, 463, 464, 466, 468, 469, 471, 472, 475, 479, 480, 481, 484, 485, 491, 496, 501, 503, 505, 510, 517, 520, 526, 529, 531, 532, 536, 540, 541, 542, 543, 545, 547, 550, 553, 558, 560, 561, 562, 564–565, 566, 572, 583, 588, 593, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 606, 608, 609, 613, 614, 630, 639, 643, 646, 649, 650, 653, 658, 659, 667, 675, 683, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 705, 706, 708, 711, 712, 718, 719, 720, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 738, 739, 744, 748, 761, 766, 767, 768, 781, 785, 786
Eriksen, 618
Erman, L., 92, 101
Ernst, G., 42, 64
Ernst, G. W., 11, 18
Eskridge, T., 212, 218
Essig, M., 662, 679
Estes, W. K., 591, 596, 608
Eteläpelto, A., 379, 385
Etzioni, A., 108, 121
Etzioni-Halevy, E., 118, 119, 121
Euhus, D. M., 347, 353
Eva, K. W., 15, 47, 55, 235, 250, 346, 349, 351
Evans, A. W., 215, 219
Evans, D. A., 352, 496, 503
Everett, W., 771, 778
Evetts, J., 9, 15, 105, 107, 110, 111, 112, 121, 614, 628, 746, 753, 754, 759
Eyferth, K., 378, 387
Eyrolle, H., 369
Eys, M. A., 448, 449
Facchini, S., 671, 681
Fagan, J. F., 592, 608
Fagan, L. M., 89, 102
Fagerhaugh, S., 144
Fahey, J. L., 495, 501
Fahle, M., 268, 269, 283, 284
Faidiga, L., 672, 681
Fajen, B. R., 515, 517
Falk, G., 322, 323, 333
Falkenhainer, B., 180, 183
Fallesen, J. J., 410, 416
Faloon, S., 236, 239, 542, 550
Farnsworth, P. R., 458, 468
Farquhar, A., 100, 103
Farr, B. R., 89, 102
Farr, M. J., 3, 12, 18, 23, 27, 31, 37, 46, 63, 95, 101, 130, 131, 142, 244, 259, 369, 412, 416, 436, 686, 700
Farr, M. L., 205, 219
Farrand, P., 363, 370, 648, 650
Farrell, J. M., 275, 276, 286
Farrow, D., 256, 260
Fassina, N. E., 383, 386
Favart, M., 572, 583
Fayol, M., 400
Fazio, F., 672, 681
Fehr, T., 533, 534
Feigenbaum, E. A., 12, 14, 43, 48, 62, 87, 90, 91, 99, 101, 102, 204, 219
Feightner, J. W., 46, 47, 62, 350, 352
Feldman, D. H., 291, 292, 299, 300, 690, 702
Feldman, J., 87, 101
Fellander-Tsai, L., 250, 261
Felleman, D. J., 656, 678
Felt, U., 9, 15, 105, 744, 746, 753
Feltovich, P. J., 3, 12, 14, 17, 18, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 41, 44, 46, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 63, 64, 65, 67, 76, 77, 81, 83, 86, 87, 89, 95, 96, 100, 101, 105, 131, 134, 135, 143, 169, 172, 174, 175, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 204, 205, 219, 249, 260, 350, 351, 376, 384, 385, 406, 415, 440, 450, 569, 583, 614, 639, 641, 647, 653, 658, 659, 667, 674, 675, 677, 708, 713, 730, 735, 743, 750, 761, 763, 765, 759, 767, 786
Feltz, D. L., 159, 164
Fencsik, D. E., 59, 67, 277, 285
Fendrich, D. W., 276, 284
Ferguson, L. W., 163, 164
Fernandes, C., 563, 567
Ferrah-Caja, E., 593, 594, 611
Ferrari, M., 756, 759
Ferrer-Caja, E., 593, 610
Ferris, G. R., 381, 385
Ferster, C. B., 45, 64
Fetterman, D. M., 128, 143
Feyerabend, P., 119, 121
Fick, G. H., 350
Fiedler, K., 27, 30
Fielder, C., 4, 18
Fiez, J. A., 508, 517
Filby, W. C. D., 708, 720
Fincher-Kiefer, R. H., 375, 387
Finkel, D., 593, 595, 608
Fiore, S. M., 15, 439, 444, 450
Fischer, U., 445, 452
Fischhoff, B., 244, 260
Fisher, J. A., 362, 370
Fishwick, R. J., 254, 261
Fisk, A. D., 53, 66, 526, 532, 536, 659, 678
Fisk, J. E., 594, 608
Fitts, P. M., 18, 47, 59, 60, 64, 83, 85, 267, 271, 284, 462, 468, 475, 485, 512, 513, 517, 617, 630, 658, 678, 684, 694, 702, 725, 738
Fitzgerald, J., 400
Fitzsimmons, C., 728, 740
Fitzsimmons, M. P., 6, 18
Fix, J. L., 435, 436
Fix, V., 378, 387
Fiz, J. A., 464, 468
Flanagan, D. P., 588, 590, 608, 610
Flanagan, J. C., 188, 189, 192, 200
Flavell, J., 55, 64
Fleck, 763, 775
Fleishman, E. A., 32, 37, 164, 443, 451, 725, 738
Fletcher, R. H., 349, 350
Fleury, C., 471, 475, 476, 485
Fleury, M., 475, 485
Flin, R., 409, 416, 451
Flor, D. L., 706, 719
Flores, F., 405, 419
Flower, L. S., 390, 400, 401
Flowers, D. L., 670, 682
Foley, M. A., 499, 501
Forbus, K. D., 46, 180, 183
Ford, G. C., 697, 701
Ford, J. K., 440, 453
Ford, K. M., 3, 18, 23, 24, 28, 46, 64, 95, 101, 131, 134, 135, 143, 178, 183, 206, 207, 208, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 385, 748, 759, 760
Ford, P., 485
Forsberg, H., 696, 700
Forsman, L., 674, 677, 696, 700
Forssberg, H., 662, 674, 677, 680
Forsyth, D. E., 204, 219
Forsyth, E., 370
Forsythe, 615, 616, 622
Forsythe, D. E., 95, 97, 101, 128, 131, 133, 143
Forsythe, G. B., 32, 38, 615, 616, 618, 622, 623, 630, 631
Foster, S. L., 313, 314, 317
Fournier, V., 111, 112, 113, 121
Foushee, H. C., 445, 451
Fox, K., 716, 720
Fox, L., 711, 720
Fox, P. T., 508, 519
Fox, P. W., 545, 550
Fozard, J. L., 726, 737
Frackowiak, R.S.J., 508, 518, 548, 551, 564, 567, 667, 668, 673, 674, 679, 680
Francis, N. K., 348, 351
Frank, A., 533, 536
Frankenberg, R., 305, 317
Franks, A., 478, 486
Frederick, J. A., 304, 317
Frederickson, B. L., 431, 436
Frederiksen, J. R., 278, 279, 284
Fredrick, J. A., 304, 317
Freeark, R. J., 348, 353
Freedman, D. J., 669, 678
Freeman, C., 186, 200, 624, 629
Freeman, J. T., 295, 301, 374, 380, 386, 406, 416, 445, 450
Frehlich, S. G., 256, 261, 476
Freidson, E., 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 121, 754, 759
French, D., 363, 369
French, K. E., 234, 239, 473, 474, 479, 485, 486
Frenkel, S., 107, 121
Frensch, P. A., 24, 26, 29, 205, 222, 267, 284, 349, 353
Frenzel, L. E., 103
Frey, P. W., 527, 536
Freyhoff, H., 527, 536
Friedel, 780, 781, 788
Friedland, R. P., 496, 501
Friedman, C. P., 27, 28, 234, 238, 349, 351
Frieman, J., 540, 542, 546, 552
Friesen, W. V., 493, 502
Frith, C. D., 511, 516, 548, 551, 564, 567, 673, 680
Fritsch, T., 496, 501
Frohna, A. Z., 342, 351
Frohring, W. R., 725, 739
Fromkin, V. A., 509, 517
Frost, S. J., 670, 671, 681, 682
Frydman, M., 533, 536
Fujigaki, Y., 382, 385
Fukuyama, F., 754, 759
Fulbright, R. K., 670, 682
Fulcomer, M., 305, 317
Fulgente, T., 533, 537
Furby, L., 163
Furey, M. L., 668, 677, 679
Furmanski, C. S., 669, 678
Futterman, A. D., 495, 501
Gabrieli, J. D. E., 508, 517, 664, 665, 668, 671, 673, 677, 679, 680, 681
Gadea, C., 106, 121
Gadian, D. G., 548, 551, 673, 680
Gagné, R. M., 77, 78, 80, 82, 85, 201, 204, 219, 226, 228, 240
Gaines, B. R., 101, 102, 204, 219
Galanter, E., 41, 44, 65, 226, 240
Galbraith, O., 254, 259
Gale, T., 247, 248, 262
Galer, I. A. R., 362, 370
Gallagher, A. G., 255, 260, 261
Gallagher, J., 472, 482, 483, 487
Gallese, V., 672, 678
Gallistel, C. R., 559, 566
Galton, F., 10, 18, 71, 224, 225, 240, 305, 317, 321, 323, 326, 327, 332, 458, 468, 553, 566, 684, 685, 702, 724, 738
Gammage, K., 710, 720
Gandolfo, F., 512, 517
Gao, J. H., 508, 517
Garavan, H., 655, 658, 660, 661, 662, 678, 680
Garcia, T., 713, 720
Garcia Caraballo, N. M., 662, 679
Gardner, H., 34, 37, 71, 77, 85, 191, 200, 554, 564, 566, 626–627, 630, 632, 756, 759, 769, 786
Gareau, L., 670, 682
Garhammer, M., 305, 317
Garland, D., 641, 642, 650
Garland, D. J., 478, 485
Garland, D. L., 213, 219
Gärling, T., 436, 437
Garner, W. L., 77, 85, 618
Garnier, H., 323, 333
Gaschnig, J., 204, 219
Gaser, C., 465, 468, 674, 678, 695, 702
Gathercole, S. E., 593, 608
Gatz, M., 593, 595, 608
Gauthier, I., 508, 517, 667, 668, 676, 678, 682
Gauthier, J., 674, 682
Gawel, R., 686, 702
Gazzaniga, M. S., 653, 678
Geary, D. C., 563, 566
Gecas, V., 756, 759
Gecht, M. R., 350
Geis, C. E., 446, 448, 450
Geisler, C., 401
Geiss, A., 348, 353
Geissler, P. W., 621, 632
Gellert, E., 178, 183
Gellman, L., 348, 353
Gelman, R., 559, 566
Gembris, H., 458, 468
Gentile, C. A., 399, 401
Gentner, D., 52, 64, 180, 183, 205, 219, 366, 370
Gerchak, Y., 327, 328, 332, 532, 535
Gernsbacher, M. A., 402
Gersick, C. J., 441, 451
Gesi, A. T., 276, 284
Getzels, J. W., 573, 583
Gherardi, S., 623, 628, 630
Giachino, A. A., 348, 353
Giacobbi, P. R., 710, 721
Giacomi, J., 138, 142
Gibson, E. J., 268, 284, 514, 517
Gibson, E. L., 97, 102
Gibson, G. J., 32, 37
Gibson, J. J., 268, 284, 480, 485, 513, 517
Giddens, A., 754, 759
Gieryn, T., 114, 122
Giesel, F. L., 662, 679
Gil, G., 621, 625, 629
Gilbreth, F., 187
Gilhooly, K. J., 24, 28, 174, 178, 181, 234, 241, 559, 567
Gill, D. L., 716, 721
Gill, H. S., 564, 567
Gill, R. T., 205, 220
Gillis Light, J., 563, 565
Gilmartin, K. J., 527, 538
Gilmore, R. O., 506, 519
Gingrich, K. F., 381, 384
Girard, N., 353
Girelli, L., 560, 566
Givon, T., 401
Gizzo, D. P., 313, 314, 317
Glaser, D. E., 672, 677
Glaser, R., 3, 12, 17, 18, 23, 24, 27, 29, 31, 37, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 63, 64, 65, 66, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 95, 101, 130, 131, 142, 157, 163, 169, 172, 174, 175, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 204, 205, 219, 220, 244, 259, 287, 301, 305, 316, 365, 369, 370, 376, 384, 406, 412, 415, 416, 436, 440, 450, 569, 583, 686, 694, 700, 702, 706, 720
Glass, J. M., 59, 67, 277, 285
Glass, R. L., 382, 385
Glenberg, A. M., 25, 28, 497, 502, 506, 517
Glencross, D., 475, 486
Glendon, A. I., 730, 742
Glickman, A. S., 441, 452
Glorieux, I., 305, 316
Glover, G. H., 508, 517
Gluck, M. A., 673, 681
Glynn, S. M., 401
Gobbini, M. I., 667, 668, 677, 679
Gobet, F., 11, 16, 18, 19, 24, 25, 28, 31, 37, 44, 49, 50, 52, 54, 58, 60, 64, 66, 168, 174, 182, 233, 235, 351, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 535, 536, 537, 538, 598, 600, 608, 693, 696, 769
Godbey, G., 304, 318
Goel, A. K., 178, 183
Goel, V., 555, 566
Goertzel, M. G., 327, 332
Goertzel, T. G., 327, 332
Goertzel, V., 327, 332
Goetz, E. T., 402
Goff, G. N., 32, 38
Goff, M., 163
Goffman, E., 135, 143, 749, 759
Goh, J., 364, 371
Golby, A. J., 668, 679
Gold, A., 532, 533, 538
Goldfield, E. C., 514, 517
Goldiez, B., 243, 260
Goldin, S. E., 528, 537
Goldman, A., 672, 678
Goldman, L., 434, 437
Goldman-Rakic, P. S., 664, 665, 677
Goldschmidt-Clearmont, L., 305, 317
Goldsmith, L. T., 292, 293, 301
Goldsmith, T. E., 180, 184, 356, 357, 365, 370
Goldstein, I., 91, 101
Goldstone, R. L., 268, 284
Golen, S., 709, 712, 720
Golomer, E., 500, 502
Gómez, G., 212, 218
Gomez de Silva Garza, A., 178, 183
Gonzales, P., 746, 759
Gonzalez, A., 217
Good, C. D., 548, 551, 673, 674, 680
Good, R., 177, 184
Goodbody, S. J., 512, 518
Goodeve, P. J., 517
Goodnow, J. J., 44, 62
Goodstein, L. P., 144, 208, 222
Goodwin, C., 52, 65
Goodwin, G. F., 15, 439, 441, 453
Goolsby, T. W., 465, 468
Goossens, L., 549, 552
Gordon, C., 111, 121
Gordon, J., 96, 101
Gordon, P., 540, 551
Gordon, S. E., 205, 211, 220
Gore, J. C., 508, 517, 664, 665, 667, 668, 676, 677, 678, 681
Gorno-Tempini, M. L., 667, 668, 679
Gorry, G. A., 43, 66
Gorter, S., 349, 353
Gossweiler, R., 514, 519
Gott, S. P., 204, 221
Gottfredson, L. S., 615, 630
Gottlieb, R., 497, 502
Gottsdanker, R., 277, 284
Goudas, M., 716, 720
Gould, S. J., 691, 702
Goulet, C., 471, 475, 476, 485
Govinderaj, T., 178, 183
Gowin, D. B., 222
Grace, D. M., 348, 351
Graf, P., 497, 503
Grafman, J., 533, 537
Grafton, S. T., 662, 663, 679
Graham, D. J., 280, 283
Graham, J., 645, 651
Graham, K. C., 234, 239, 474, 485
Graham, S., 245, 259, 478, 483, 709, 720
Grande, G. E., 370
Grand’Maison, P., 353
Granovetter, M. S., 118, 122, 757, 759
Grape, C., 692, 702
Gray, W. D., 176, 179, 183, 244, 253, 260
Graydon, J. K., 708, 720
Grazioli, S., 235, 240
Green, C., 48, 64
Green, A. J. F., 237, 240
Green, B. F. Jr., 33, 38
Green, C., 24, 28
Green, L., 459, 468
Green, M. L., 434, 437
Greenbaum, J., 129, 130, 143
Greenberg, D., 710, 722
Greenberg, L., 205, 220
Greene, T. R., 23, 29, 47, 67, 375, 387, 570, 578, 584
Greenwood, R., 106, 108, 122
Gregorich, S. E., 446, 448, 450
Grelon, A., 110, 122
Grey, C., 113, 122
Grey, S. M., 187, 200
Grèzes, J., 672, 677
Grigorenko, E. L., 10, 19, 31, 32, 38, 615, 616, 618, 621, 623, 625, 629, 631, 632
Grill-Spector, K., 668, 669, 679
Gritter, R. J., 91, 101
Grobe, C., 401
Grober, E. D., 348, 351, 353
Grocki, M. J., 513, 519
Groeger, J. A., 370
Groen, G. J., 55, 56, 64, 66, 102, 235, 240, 251, 261, 352
Gronlund, S. D., 364, 366, 369
Gronn, P., 448, 450
Grossin, W., 305, 317
Gross-Tsur, V., 563, 567
Grotzer, T. A., 626, 630
Gruber, H. E., 16, 47, 59, 60, 287, 301, 457, 458, 460, 464, 468, 527, 532, 533, 536, 538, 673, 693, 769
Gruber, O., 554, 566
Grudin, J. G., 509, 518
Grudowski, M., 709, 714, 719, 720
Grue, N., 178, 183
Gruhn, W., 463, 468
Gruppen, L. D., 342, 351
Gruson, L. M., 461, 468, 698, 702
Gudagunti, R., 107, 122
Guerin, B., 378, 379, 385
Guha, R. V., 99, 102
Guilford, J. P., 158, 164
Gully, S. M., 441, 451
Gurfinkel, V. S., 514, 516
Guskey, T. R., 78, 79, 85
Guskin, H., 490, 502
Gutenschwager, G. A., 305, 317
Guttman, L., 164
Guzzo, R. A., 440, 441, 451
Guzzon, R., 450
Haber, L., 359, 360, 363, 370
Haber, R. N., 359, 360, 363, 370
Hackman, J. R., 439, 441, 443, 451
Haggard, P., 672, 673, 677, 679
Hah, S., 645, 651
Hahn, S., 735, 739
Haider, H., 251, 262, 267, 284
Hajdukiewicz, J. R., 209, 210, 218
Hakata, K., 385
Hake, H. W., 618, 630
Hale, S., 726, 740
Hall, C., 500, 503, 710, 720
Hall, C. R., 710, 721
Hall, E. R., 253, 261
Hall, E. T., 130, 143
Hall, K. G., 506, 518
Hall, L. K., 602, 607
Hall, R. H., 754, 759
Hallam, S., 461, 467, 468, 712, 720
Haller, C. R., 401
Hallett, M., 662, 663, 671, 674, 679, 681
Halliday, T. C., 110, 122
Hallman, J. C., 757, 759
Halm, E. A., 349, 351
Halterman, J. A., 414, 418
Haluck, R. S., 250, 260
Hamagami, F., 593, 594, 595, 596, 610
Hambrick, D. Z., 51, 64, 728, 732, 735, 738
Hamery, 714
Hamilton, A. F., 518
Hamilton, R. H., 548, 551
Hamilton, S. E., 533, 535
Hammond, J. S., 424, 436
Hammond, T., 99, 101
Hamstra, S. J., 15, 47, 55, 235, 250, 348, 351, 352, 353
Hancock, P. A., 12, 15, 46, 60, 78, 243, 253, 260, 693
Hanes, L. F., 207, 217, 220
Hanesian, H., 211, 218
Hanley, J. A., 353
Hanlon, G., 108, 111, 113, 122
Hanna, E., 349, 350, 353
Hanna, G. B., 348, 351
Hannafin, M. J., 83, 85
Hannan, M. T., 326, 332, 754, 758
Hansson, L.-O., 692, 702
Harasym, P. H., 350
Haraway, D., 117, 122
Harbison-Briggs, K., 204, 221
Hardingham, C., 256, 260
Hardy, G. H., 561, 566
Hardy, J., 710, 720
Hardy, L., 708, 720
Harel, M., 668, 669, 680
Hargreaves, D., 462, 468
Harlow, H. F., 592, 608
Haro, M., 464, 468
Harper, R. H. R., 128, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143
Harris, M. B., 711, 712, 719
Harris, M. S., 532, 536
Harris, R. J., 493, 497, 503
Harris, S., 563, 567
Harrison, C., 735, 739
Harrison, S., 106, 122
Hart, A., 207, 220
Hart, P., 204, 219
Hartel, C., 448, 452
Harter, N., 11, 12, 17, 225, 238, 266, 267, 282, 283, 474, 484, 509, 510, 517, 685, 689, 700
Hartley, A. A., 736, 738
Hartley, J., 401
Hartley, T., 548, 551, 673, 674, 675, 679, 680
Harvey, A. S., 14, 15, 60, 303, 304, 305, 312, 317, 318, 693, 714
Harvey, N., 437
Harwood, E., 595, 608
Hashem, A., 27, 28, 349, 351
Hasher, L., 726, 738
Haskins, M. J., 245, 260
Haslam, I., 500, 503
Haslett, T. K., 734, 739
Hassebrock, F., 51, 64, 351
Hastie, R., 433, 437
Hatakenaka, S., 444, 450
Hatala, R. M., 346, 352
Hatano, G., 26, 28, 53, 64, 249, 260, 377, 378, 383, 385, 440, 451
Hauser, M., 555, 566
Hausmann, R. G. M., 21, 27, 177, 182
Hautamaki, J., 618, 631
Hauxwell, B., 256, 261
Hawkins, H. L., 727, 739
Hawkins, K., 110, 122
Hawkins, R. P., 313, 314, 317
Haxby, J. V., 656, 667, 668, 677, 679
Hay, J., 481, 484
Hayes, A., 305, 306, 307, 309, 311, 318, 481, 486, 693, 703, 709, 721, 730, 741
Hayes, J. R., 55, 64, 222, 305, 317, 324, 327, 332, 390, 400, 401, 462, 468, 689, 702, 761, 768, 769, 771, 786
Hayes, P. J., 748, 760
Hayes-Roth, F., 92, 96, 101, 191, 200, 204, 220, 222
Hays, R. T., 253, 260
Hazeltine, E., 277, 284, 662, 663, 679
He, S., 533, 534
Healy, A. F., 276, 279, 281, 283, 284, 285
Heaney, C., 348, 353
Hearn, A. C., 90, 102
Hearst, E. S., 233, 238, 529, 531, 535
Heath, C., 130, 138, 144
Heathcote, A., 267, 284
Hebb, D. O., 508, 518
Hécaen, H., 560, 566
Hecht, H., 26, 28
Heckerling, P. S., 26, 27
Heckhausen, J., 547, 551
Hedehus, M., 671, 680
Hedgecock, A. P., 180, 182
Hedges, L. V., 563, 565
Hedlund, J., 32, 38, 615, 616, 618, 622, 623, 629, 630, 631
Hedman, L., 250, 261
Heffner, T. S., 618, 621, 622, 630
Heggestad, E. D., 158, 159, 160, 163
Heiden, C., 625, 629
Heider, F., 750, 751, 759
Hein, M. B., 443, 451
Helmholtz, H., von, 511, 518
Helmreich, R. L., 253, 260, 446, 448, 450
Helsen, W. F., 255, 260, 471, 475, 476, 477, 478, 485, 487, 693, 702
Helton, W. S., 429, 436
Hemory, D., 712, 720
Hempel, A., 662, 679
Hempel, C., 571, 583
Hempel, W. E., Jr., 155, 164
Henderson, A., 130, 144
Henderson, R. D., 237, 240
Henderson, S. M., 409, 410, 411, 415, 417, 445, 452
Hendler, T. J., 99, 101, 668, 669, 679, 680
Henmon, V. A. C., 370
Henry, J., 401
Henry, R. A., 725, 739
Heppenheimer, T. A., 776, 777, 778, 786
Herath, P., 664, 665, 679
Herbert, M., 348, 353
Heritage, J., 128, 131, 133, 143
Hermelin, B., 463, 470, 557, 567
Herodotus, 570, 583
Hershey, D. A., 598, 599, 601, 602, 609, 611, 728, 741
Hershey, J. C., 424, 436
Hertzog, C., 726, 738
Herzog, H., 616, 630
Hesketh, B., 384, 385
Hickox, J., 250, 253, 260
Higgins, M. P., 349, 352
Higgins, R. C., 434, 436
Higgins, T. J., 253, 260
Higgs, A. C., 448, 450
Hikosaka, O., 672, 681
Hilgard, E. R., 265, 283
Hill, G., 212, 218
Hill, J. R., 83, 85
Hill, L., 699, 702
Hill, N. M., 16, 53, 54, 59, 588, 597, 641, 653, 665, 679, 685, 695, 769
Hindmarsh, J., 130, 138, 144
Hinds, P. J., 26, 28
Hinsley, D., 55, 64
Hinsz, V. B., 443, 451
Hinton, S. C., 465, 470
Hiremath, S. L., 107, 122
Hirst, G., 448, 452
Hirst, W., 53, 67
Hirtle, S. C., 51, 65, 379, 386
Hitch, G. J., 661, 677
Hitt, J. M., 215, 219
Hittmair-Delazer, M., 560, 567
Hlustik, P., 674, 682
Hmelo-Silver, C. E., 177, 180, 183
Hobus, P. P. M., 26, 28, 349, 352
Hoc, J.-M., 205, 220
Hochstein, S., 666, 677
Hochwarter, W. A., 381, 385
Hodges, N. J., 16, 47, 60, 234, 237, 241, 251, 257, 261, 262, 305, 306, 307, 309, 311, 317, 318, 471, 472, 481, 485, 486, 487, 501, 636, 693, 702, 703, 709, 715, 721, 730, 741, 770
Hoerning, E., 756, 759
Hofer, S. M., 595, 609
Hoffman, E. A., 667, 668, 679
Hoffman, R. R., 3, 12, 15, 18, 22, 23, 25, 28, 45, 46, 60, 64, 65, 94, 95, 97, 100, 101, 102, 128, 131, 134, 135, 143, 164, 170, 173, 176, 178, 180, 183, 185, 186, 191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 231, 236, 240, 244, 245, 260, 356, 361, 370, 374, 384, 385, 404, 405, 407, 412, 414, 416, 417, 625, 686, 702, 738, 743, 745, 759
Hogan, B., 712, 720
Hohlfeld, M., 530, 537
Holding, D. H., 528, 529, 537, 599, 609
Holland, J. L., 158, 164
Hollingshead, A. B., 753, 759
Hollnagel, E., 185, 188, 192, 199, 200, 205, 208, 220, 221
Holmes, G., 508, 518
Holste, S. T., 406, 417
Holsti, O., 580, 583
Holtmann, S., 251, 262
Holtzblatt, K., 129, 142
Holyoak, K. J., 59, 64, 378, 385, 764, 785
Hommel, B., 272, 285, 511, 518
Honda, M., 549, 552, 662, 663, 679
Honzik, M. P., 164
Horgan, D. D., 533, 537
Horn, J. L., 10, 16, 21, 29, 32, 37, 49, 71, 587, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 599, 600, 603, 609, 610, 611, 613, 616, 617, 630, 708, 724, 725, 728, 736, 739, 740, 769
Horowitz, D. M., 465, 468
Horswill, M. S., 363, 370, 371, 648, 650
Horvath, J. A., 32, 38, 615, 616, 617, 618, 622, 623, 630, 631, 632
Horwitz, B., 671, 679
Horwitz, W. A., 557, 567
Houben, H., 349, 353
Houillier, S., 560, 566
Houston, P. L., 347, 352
Houtsma, A. J., 465, 468
Howard, A., 33, 37
Howard, D. V., 275, 284
Howard, J. H., 275, 284
Howard, R. W., 532, 537
Howe, M. J. A., 10, 18, 305, 318, 459, 461, 468, 470, 692, 703, 725, 739
Howe, S. R., 429, 436
Howell, C., 641, 642, 650
Howes, A., 528, 537, 598, 599, 610
Hoyles, C., 553, 567
Hu, X., 533, 534
Huang, Y. X., 548, 551, 565, 567, 703
Hubbard, J. P., 254, 260
Hughes, E. C., 107, 122
Hughes, J., 237, 240
Hughes, K. M., 657, 680
Hughes, M., 261
Hulin, C. L., 725, 739
Humphreys, L. G., 164
Hunt, E. B., 14, 18, 31, 33, 37, 45, 162, 164, 236, 240, 540, 541, 551
Hunter, I. M. L., 540, 542, 551, 554, 560, 561, 567
Hunter, J. E., 24, 28, 33, 38, 174, 178, 181, 431, 436, 616, 617, 630, 631, 691, 702, 724, 741
Huntley, G. W., 671, 679
Hutchins, E., 131, 143, 205, 208, 221
Hutchinson, J., 167, 180, 182
Hutchison, C., 350
Hutton, R. J. B., 187, 201, 216, 221, 413, 414, 416, 418
Huys, R., 472, 476, 477, 480, 484, 485, 516
Hyland, K., 394, 401
Ibanez, V., 662, 663, 679
Icher, F., 74, 85
Ignaki, K., 249, 260
Ilgen, D. R., 440, 451
Ille, A., 499, 502
Imhof, K., 120, 122
Imreh, G., 237, 238, 461, 463, 467, 698, 700
Inagaki, K., 26, 28, 377, 378, 383, 385, 440, 451
Indefrey, P., 554, 566
Ingham, J. G., 544, 551
Ingvar, M., 548, 550, 551
Intons-Peterson, M. J., 491, 502
Iscoe, N., 380, 382, 385
Ishai, A., 656, 667, 668, 677, 679
Israel, P., 779, 780, 788
Itzchak, Y., 669, 679
Ivancic, K., 384, 385
Ivory, M. Y., 376, 384
Ivry, R., 465, 469, 662, 663, 679, 727, 739
Ivry, R. B., 277, 284, 508, 518, 653, 678
Ivry, R. I., 275, 283, 513, 517
Iyengar, S., 374, 386
Jack, R., 471, 475, 487
Jackson, S., 527, 532, 536
Jacobs, D. M., 472, 477, 480, 484, 516
Jacobs, J. W., 253, 260
Jacobsen, R. B., 664, 665, 677
Jacobson, M. J., 83, 86, 415, 416
Jacoby, L. L., 274, 284
Jacoby, S., 746, 759
Jacott, L., 576, 582
Jakimowicz, J., 251, 261
Jakobovits, L. A., 43, 64
Jamal, K., 235, 240
James, W., 518, 766, 786
Jamison, K. R., 327, 332
Jäncke, L., 464, 469, 548, 551, 565, 567, 674, 679, 703
Janelle, C. M., 477, 484
Jansen, C., 515, 519
Jansen, P. J., 530, 532, 536
Jansma, J. M., 53, 64, 660, 661, 679
Jaques, E., 758, 759
Jarvi, K. A., 347, 351
Jarvin, L., 621, 625, 629
Jasanoff, S., 755, 759
Jastrzembski, T., 524, 535
Jax, S. A., 16, 47, 505, 636, 666
Jean, J., 499, 502
Jeannerod, M., 509, 518
Jeffries, R., 54, 64, 373, 375, 376, 377, 385
Jeffs, T., 71, 85
Jenkins, I., 508, 518
Jenner, A. R., 671, 681
Jensen, A. R., 32, 37, 164, 556, 567, 591, 609, 616, 630
Jensen, R. S., 641, 651
Jentsch, F., 215, 219
Jeong, H., 177, 182
Jeyarajah, D. R., 347, 353
Jezzard, P., 653, 657, 662, 663, 671, 679, 680
Jiang, H., 668, 680
Jiang, Y., 664, 679
Jiwanji, M., 352
Jodlowski, M. T., 248, 249, 259, 260
Johnsen, B. H., 445, 448, 449
Johnson, A., 129, 143, 313, 317
Johnson, D. M., 176, 179, 183
Johnson, E. J., 13, 17, 26, 28, 425, 433, 436, 437, 686, 700
Johnson, J. G., 410, 416
Johnson, K., 176, 183
Johnson, P. E., 51, 54, 55, 64, 235, 240, 351, 400
Johnson, S., 71, 72, 85, 393, 395, 401
Johnson, T., 109, 122
Johnson-Laird, P. N., 48, 67
Johnsrude, I. S., 548, 551, 673, 680
John-Steiner, V., 401
Johnston, J., 410, 416
Johnston, J. C., 276, 277, 278, 285, 286
Johnston, J. H., 449, 453
Johnston, N., 215, 221
Johston, F. E., 688, 703
Jolicœur, P., 277, 286
Jolles, J., 593, 611
Jones, C. M., 245, 260
Jones, D. B., 347, 353
Jones, D. G., 634, 641, 646, 650, 651
Jones, G., 64, 527, 536
Jones, M. B., 155, 164
Jones, R. T., 711, 720
Jones, S., 548, 550, 551
Jongman, R. W., 525, 537
Jordan, B., 130, 135, 143, 144
Jordan, W. C., 73, 85
Jorgensen, H., 460, 469
Josephs, O., 667, 668, 679
Joyce, C.R.B., 627, 629
Juda, A., 327, 333
Judd, C. M., 728, 740
Jung, D. I., 446, 451
Just, M. A., 662, 664, 678, 680
Juster, F. T., 304, 305, 317
Kaas, J. H., 508, 518
Kaempf, G. L., 192, 201
Kahn, R., 53, 64, 81, 85
Kahn, R. S., 660, 661, 679
Kahneman, D., 33, 37, 93, 96, 103, 404, 405, 409, 416, 418, 425, 437
Kaigas, T. B., 349, 350
Kalakoski, V., 531, 537, 547, 551
Kalish, M., 512, 518
Kaminaya, T., 549, 552
Kandel, E. R., 508, 518
Kane, M. J., 32, 37
Kanfer, R., 158, 160, 161, 163, 164
Kanki, B. G., 445, 451
Kant, I., 155, 164, 729, 737, 741
Kanwisher, N., 518, 667, 668, 680, 682
Kaplan, C. A., 224, 241
Kapur, N., 547, 548, 551, 667, 668, 679
Karabenek, S. A., 711, 720
Kardash, C. M., 174, 175, 183
Kareev, Y., 47, 63, 171, 182, 350
Karim, J., 235, 240
Karlson, J. L., 327, 333
Karmiloff-Smith
Karni, A., 269, 284, 657, 662, 663, 667, 671, 680, 682
Karniol, R., 709, 720
Karpik, L., 110, 122
Karpov, A., 233, 240
Kasai, K., 602, 603, 609
Kasan, L., 291, 301
Kasarskis, P., 250, 253, 260
Kassirer, J. P., 43, 66, 102
Katsumata, H., 514, 520
Katz, D., 81, 85
Katz, L., 670, 671, 681, 682
Kauffman, W. H., 463, 469
Kaufman,
Kaufman, A. S., 593, 595, 609, 726, 739
Kaufman, D. R., 24, 29
Kaufmann, D. R., 52, 66, 235, 240
Kausler, D. H., 594, 609, 611
Kay, B. A., 514, 517
Kayes, C. D., 446, 451
Kazanas, H. C., 81, 86
Keating, D. P., 555, 565
Keating, T., 715, 719
Keck, J. W., 348, 352
Keele, S. W., 273, 275, 283, 465, 469, 508, 513, 517, 518, 727, 739
Keeney, R. L., 424, 434, 436
Kellaghan, T., 32, 37
Keller, E. F., 117, 122
Keller, F. S., 225, 240
Keller, R., 405, 416
Keller, T. A., 664, 680
Kelley, R., 380, 385
Kellogg, R. T., 15, 44, 60, 235, 389, 401, 693
Kelly, A. M. C., 655, 658, 660, 661, 680
Kelly, B. C., 443, 451
Kelso, J. A. S., 514, 520
Kelso, M. T., 495, 502
Kemeny, M. E., 495, 501
Kemper, K., 356, 357, 364, 366, 367, 371, 445, 453
Kendall, D., 442, 450
Kennedy, C., 496, 502
Kennedy, W. A., 668, 680
Kennet, J., 575, 580, 583, 584
Kenny, S., 510, 519, 729, 740
Kent, P., 553, 567
Keren, G., 405, 416
Kerlirzin, Y., 476, 486
Kernodle, M., 479, 486
Kerr, T., 481, 485, 487, 518
Keys, W., 563, 567
Khatwa, R., 253, 260
Kida, T., 405, 418, 433, 437
Kiekel, P. A., 446, 450
Kieras, D. E., 59, 65, 67, 191, 200, 277, 285, 663, 666, 676, 681
Kiker, D. S., 734, 737
Killackey, H. P., 508, 518
Kilner, P., 624, 630
Kim, J. S., 665, 678
Kim, N. S., 342, 352
Kimball, D. R., 378, 385
Kimball, H. R., 352
King, J., 91, 101
Kingberg, T., 664, 665, 679
Kingston, K. M., 708, 720
Kinsley, B., 304, 317
Kintsch, W., 11, 18, 25, 28, 50, 52, 54, 56, 63, 64, 232, 233, 235, 239, 248, 249, 259, 260, 262, 352, 401, 431, 436, 463, 468, 496, 501, 526, 529, 536, 547, 550, 558, 560, 564, 566, 572, 583, 588, 598, 599, 600, 608, 686, 696, 701, 711, 720, 726, 738
Kirby, I. K., 24, 28
Kirk, E. P., 59, 63
Kirkpatrick, A. E., 251, 260
Kirlik, A., 628, 631
Kirschenbaum, D. S., 712, 720
Kirsner, K., 26, 29, 266, 286
Kirwan, B., 185, 200
Kiss, I., 424, 436
Kite, K., 356, 357, 364, 366, 367, 371, 445, 453
Kitsantas, A., 707, 708, 709, 711, 712, 713, 714, 716, 717, 720, 722
Kivlighan, D. M., 174, 175, 183
Kjellin, A., 250, 261
Klahr, D., 205, 208, 221
Klahr, P., 99, 101
Klapp, S. T., 509, 518
Klatzky, R. L., 432, 438, 686, 701
Klaus, D. J., 80, 85
Klausmeier, H. J., 79, 85
Klein, D. E., 200
Klein, G. A., 15, 23, 28, 33, 37, 46, 52, 54, 56, 64, 65, 97, 102, 138, 170, 171, 173, 176, 182, 183, 187, 192, 198, 199, 200, 201, 205, 206, 209, 212, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 243, 244, 261, 363, 367, 370, 371, 374, 380, 386, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 422, 426, 430, 433, 436, 437, 438, 441, 442, 444, 445, 450, 451, 452, 453, 529, 535, 637, 639, 640, 650, 736, 745, 759
Kleine, B. M., 383, 386
Kleinman, D. L., 443, 451
Kleinschmidt, A., 554, 566
Kliegl, R., 547, 549, 550, 551, 724, 727, 729, 733, 734, 739, 740
Klimoski, R., 443, 451
Kline, D. A., 444, 451
Kling, R., 131, 144
Klingberg, T., 662, 664, 665, 671, 677, 680, 681
Klinger, D. W., 413, 417, 419
Klopfer, D., 23, 29, 44, 53, 65, 172, 181, 183
Kneebone, R., 255, 260
Kneeland, H., 304, 317
Knights, D., 305, 317
Knopf, M., 736, 739
Knorr-Cetina, K. D., 116, 122, 205, 206, 208, 221
Knowles, J. M., 246, 247, 252, 256, 257, 258, 262, 477, 488, 697, 703
Kobatake, E., 669, 680
Kobbeltvedt, T., 445, 448, 449
Kobus, D. A., 406, 417
Koehler, D. J., 437
Koeske, R., 175, 176, 182
Kofler, M., 671, 681
Koh, K., 512, 518
Kohl, J., 480, 484
Kohn, L. T., 255, 260
Kolabinska, M., 119, 122
Kolb, B., 657, 680, 695, 702
Kolodner, J., 92, 102
Kolodny, J., 616, 630
Koltanowski, G., 233, 240, 599, 609
Komarovsky, M., 304, 317
Konijn, E. A., 495, 502
Koning, P., 234, 238, 478, 483
Kooman, J. P., 353
Koonce, J. M., 253, 261
Koopman, P., 215, 221
Kopelman, M., 557, 566
Kopiez, R., 458, 460, 464, 469
Korczynski, M., 107, 121
Körding, K. P., 512, 518
Koriat, A., 497, 502
Kornblum, S., 271, 284, 512, 519
Korotkin, A. L., 443, 451
Koschmann, T. D., 52, 65
Koslowski, B., 598, 599, 607
Koss, E., 496, 501
Kotovsky, K., 205, 221
Koubek, R. J., 376, 378, 381, 382, 383, 385
Kozbelt, A., 21, 29, 770, 771, 786
Kozlowski, S. W., 440, 441, 451, 453
Kozlowski, W. J., 441, 442, 450
Kramer, A. F., 249, 259, 362, 369, 602, 609, 657, 664, 665, 666, 678, 735, 739
Kramer, J. J., 549, 550
Krampe, R. T., 14, 16, 18, 23, 28, 31, 34, 37, 45, 60, 64, 235, 237, 251, 259, 292, 297, 300, 305, 306, 307, 308, 311, 316, 317, 348, 369, 370, 375, 383, 385, 386, 400, 427, 436, 459, 460, 462, 468, 469, 472, 480, 485, 532, 533, 534, 535, 561, 562, 566, 598, 600, 601, 602, 607, 608, 609, 613, 630, 657, 683, 686, 689, 691, 692, 693, 695, 697, 699, 700, 701, 702, 705, 720, 723, 724, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 738, 739, 742
Krasner, H., 380, 382, 385
Krause, E. A., 5, 6, 18
Krems, J. F., 379, 386
Krivine, J.-P., 204, 219
Kroeber, A. L., 327, 333
Krogius, N., 305, 317
Kroll, J. F., 510, 518
Kruger, J., 57, 65
Krumpat, E., 648, 650
Kubeck, J. E., 734, 739
Kuiper, R., 57, 65
Kulatanga-Moruzi, C., 352
Kulik, C.-L., 79, 85
Kulik, J. A., 79, 85
Kulikowski, C. A., 96, 103, 405, 419
Kuncel, N. R., 443, 450
Kurtzberg, T. R., 435, 436
Kurz-Milcke, E., 752, 760
Kushnir, T., 669, 679
Kwong, K. K., 668, 680
Kyllonen, P. C., 32, 37, 38
Kyne, M. M., 406, 413, 416, 419
Kyng, M., 129, 130, 143
Laberg, J. C., 445, 448, 449
Labouvie, G. V., 725, 739
Lachman, R., 106, 122
Lackner, J. R., 512, 517
LaFrance, M., 206, 221
Lagemann, E. C., 76, 81, 82, 85
Laine, T., 532, 537
Lajoie, S., 205, 220
Lamb, S. B., 349, 350, 352
Lamme, V., 57, 65
Lamonica, J. A., 356, 357, 367, 368, 370
L’Amour, L., 397, 401
Lance, C. E., 614, 630
Landau, E., 776, 786
Landau, S. M., 662, 680
Landauer, T. K., 506, 518
Landerl, K., 555, 556, 567
Lane, C. J., 593, 609
Lane, D. M., 527, 530, 535, 600, 607
Lane, P. C. R., 64, 527, 536
Lang, N., 671, 677
Lange, I., 380, 386
Langer, E. J., 751, 759
Langner, J., 464, 469
LaPorte, T. R., 448, 451
Larkin, G., 109, 122
Larkin, J. H., 24, 29, 44, 65, 88, 102, 406, 417, 569, 583, 614, 630
Larsen, R., 401
Larson, K. B., 305, 317
Larson, M. S., 109, 122
Larsson, M., 593, 606
Lashley, K. S., 509, 518
Lassila, O., 99, 101
Lassiter, G. D., 529, 537
Latham, G. O., 383, 386
Latham, G. P., 383, 386, 708, 709, 712, 720
Latour, B., 116, 122
Lauber, E. J., 59, 67, 277, 285
Lauterbach, B., 513, 520
LaVancher, C., 230, 238
Lave, J., 127, 131, 144, 205, 221, 405, 417, 624, 628, 630, 757, 759
Laverty-Finch, C., 313, 314, 317
Law, B., 251, 260
Law, L.-C., 379, 386
Law, M., 693, 700
Lawton, M. P., 305, 317, 318
Lay, B. S., 657, 680
Laycock, Z. R., 347, 353
Leahey, T. H., 265, 284
Leake, D. B., 92, 102
Leavitt, J., 513, 518
LeBaron, C., 52, 65
LeBold, W. K., 376, 385
Leckie, P. A., 400
Ledden, P. J., 668, 680
Lederberg, J., 90, 91, 101, 102, 204, 219
Lederman, R., 465, 467
Lee, C., 349, 351
Lee, D. N., 480, 485
Lee, K., 396, 398
Lee, J. R., 671, 681
Lee, J.-W., 271, 284, 426, 438
Lee, T. A., 475, 486
Lee, T. D., 273, 285, 474, 479, 485, 486, 505, 519
Lefever, A., 250, 260
LeGoff, J., 72, 85
Legree, P. J., 618, 621, 622, 630
Lehman, D. R., 431, 437
Lehman, H. C., 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 329, 330, 333
Lehmann, A. C., 4, 10, 13, 16, 18, 25, 28, 47, 57, 59, 60, 64, 231, 233, 236, 239, 382, 385, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 466, 468, 469, 572, 583, 588, 601, 608, 649, 650, 673, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 693, 696, 701, 702, 727, 732, 733, 738, 739, 769
Lehner, P. E., 426, 437
Lehrer, J., 711, 713, 720
Leibowitz, L., 230, 240
Leighton, P., 52, 67
Leijenhorst, H., 199, 201
Leiner, A. L., 508, 518
Leiner, H. C., 508, 518
Leinhardt, G., 570, 573, 574, 583
Leirer, V., 728, 740
Lemaire, P., 24, 29
Lemay, J. A. L., 401
Lemeignan, M., 495, 502
Lemieux, M., 350
Lemon, M. C., 571, 583
Lemons, D., 624, 625, 629
Lenat, D. B., 99, 101, 102, 191, 200, 204, 220
Leonardelli, G. J., 435, 437
Leont’ev, A. N., 144
Lepage, M., 664, 676, 680
Lepsien, 666
Lerner, A. J., 496, 501
Lerner, R., 119, 122, 757, 759
Lerner, Y., 668, 669, 680
Lesgold, A. M., 23, 29, 44, 53, 54, 65, 66, 131, 172, 181, 183, 192, 205, 200, 204, 220
Lesser, E. L., 623, 624, 625, 631
Lesser, V., 92, 101
Levelt, W., 400
Levenson, R. W., 493, 502
Leventhal, L. M., 379, 387
Levin, K. Y., 443, 451
Levin, S. G., 322, 335
Levine, L. W., 576, 583
Levitt, E. J., 254, 260
Levy, J., 277, 285
Lewandowsky, S., 26, 29, 512, 518
Lewis, P., 107, 121
Lewis, S., 615, 631
Leyden, G., 533, 538
Li, J., 626–627, 632
Li, S. J., 662, 678
Libby, R., 618, 621, 622, 632
Lien, M.-C., 277, 285
Lighten, J. P., 599, 610
Lightfoot, N., 269, 270, 286
Liker, J. K., 435, 436
Lim, V., 466, 469
Lima, S. D., 726, 740
Lindauer, M. S., 326, 333
Lindberg, E., 436, 437
Linden, A., 508, 517
Lindenberger, U., 724, 728, 733, 734, 740, 741
Lindley, S., 256, 261, 498, 499, 500, 503
Lindsay, R. K., 90, 102
Linssen, G. C. M., 599, 610
Lintern, G., 12, 15, 45, 60, 94, 100, 176, 191, 192, 196, 200, 203, 206, 209, 215, 221, 253, 261, 361, 370, 407, 625, 738
Linton, P., 393, 395, 401
Lipman, M., 626, 631
Lipner, R. S., 352
Lipshitz, R., 404, 405, 406, 410, 414, 417, 441, 445, 450, 451, 452
Lishman, J. R., 480, 485
Litsky, F., 709, 720
Liu, Y-T., 514, 519
Livingstone, E. A., 72, 73, 74, 84
Lloyd, S. J., 526, 532, 536
Locke, E. A., 383, 386, 708, 709, 712, 720
Loehr, J. E., 710, 720
Loewenstein, G., 434, 437
Lofquist, L. H., 158, 164
Logan, D., 205, 220
Logan, G. D., 53, 65, 267, 268, 285, 507, 518
Logie, R. H., 174, 178, 181, 559, 567
Logothetis, N. K., 508, 518, 669, 677, 680, 682
Lohman, D. F., 164
Lomax, A. J., 251, 260
Londerlee, B. R., 256, 261
Longwell, D., 490, 502
Lopez-Manjon, A., 576, 582
Loren, T., 498, 502
Lorenz, K., 130, 144
Lott, J., 212, 218
Lott, R. B., 511, 519
Lötze, R. H., 518
Louça, F., 186, 200
Love, T., 236, 240, 540, 541, 551
Lowe, A., 106, 109, 121
Lowenthal, D., 576, 583
Lowry, K., 472, 482, 483, 487
Loyens, S. M., 353
Lozito, S., 445, 451
Lu, C.-H., 272, 285
Lubinski, D., 34, 36, 37
Luchins, A. S., 769, 788
Luchins, E. H., 769, 788
Luczak, H., 187, 200, 211, 222
Luff, P., 130, 138, 144
Luhmann, N., 751, 754, 759
Lumsdaine, A. A., 45, 65
Lundberg, G. A., 304, 317
Luria, A. R., 236, 240, 540, 551
Lussier, J. W., 405, 411, 412, 418
Luthans, F., 383, 387
Lynch, E. B., 180, 183
Lynch, G., 508, 518
Lynn, R., 533, 536
Lyon, A., 174, 178, 181
Lyons, R., 4, 18
Lyotard, J. F., 107, 122
Lyubomirsky, S., 431, 437
MacDonald, J. E., 215
MacDonald, K. M., 106, 109, 122
MacDonald, L., 463, 467
MacFarland, J. W., 164
MacGregor, D., 192, 200, 209, 221
Mach, E., 459, 469, 710, 711, 720
MacKay, D. G., 729, 740
Mackenzie, C. L., 251, 260
Mackesy, M. E., 26, 27
Mackie, J. L., 580, 583
MacKinnon, J., 401
Mackrell, J., 498, 501
MacMahon, C., 16, 47, 60, 361, 369, 471, 473, 475, 484, 486, 501, 513, 516, 693, 710, 715
MacMillan, J., 406, 418
MacNeil, D., 58, 62
MacNeilage, P., 555, 566
Madden, D. J., 594, 610
Maddox, M. D., 513, 518
Madigan, R., 393, 395, 401
Madsen, D., 76, 85
Mager, R. F., 79, 85
Magill, R. A., 506, 518
Magnor, C., 733, 740
Magone, M., 205, 220
Maguire, E. A., 547, 548, 551, 673, 674, 675, 679, 680
Mahadevan, R. S., 181, 182, 237, 239, 543, 545, 550, 690, 701
Mailer, N., 401
Majone, G., 424, 436
Malach, R., 668, 669, 679, 680
Malhotra, A., 376, 386
Mallon, J. S., 347, 352
Mancini, G. M., 312, 316
Mancini, V. H., 314, 315, 316
Mandin, H., 350
Mangun, G. R., 653, 678
Mann, L., 448, 452
Manniche, E., 322, 323, 333
Manturzewska, M., 458, 469
Marcantoni, W. S., 664, 676, 680
Marchant, G., 26, 29
Marcoen, A., 549, 550, 552
Marine, C., 369
Markley, R. P., 549, 550
Marks, M. A., 441, 443, 452, 453
Marshall, K., 304, 317
Marshall, P., 544, 546, 552
Marshall, T. H., 107, 122
Marsiske, M., 732, 737, 742
Martin, A., 656, 667, 668, 679
Martin, D. E., 618, 621, 622, 630
Martin, L., 451
Martinez-Pons, M., 709, 722
Martire, T. M., 347, 352
Marvin, F. F., 426, 437
Mason, S. A., 670, 682
Mastropieri, M. A., 549, 551
Masunaga, H., 10, 16, 21, 29, 49, 71, 587, 593, 600, 603, 610, 613, 616, 708, 725, 726, 728, 736, 739, 740, 769
Matelli, M., 672, 681
Mathieu, J. E., 441, 452
Matlin, M. W., 78, 85
Matsumoto, E. D., 348, 351, 352, 353
Matthay, T., 460, 469
Matthew, C. T., 12, 16, 613
Matthews, A., 378, 379, 385
Matthews, G., 429, 436
Matthews, M. D., 645, 651
Matthews, P. M., 653, 679
Maurer, T. J., 728, 741
Maycock, G., 370, 648, 650
Mayer, R. E., 710, 721
Mayer-Kress, G., 514, 519
Mayfield, W. A., 174, 175, 183
Maylor, E. A., 728, 740
Maynard, I. W., 708, 718, 720, 721
Mayr, U., 10, 18, 34, 37, 306, 316, 532, 533, 535, 536, 602, 607, 693, 697, 700, 727, 728, 729, 730, 734, 738, 739
Mazoyer, B., 563, 564, 568, 675, 681
McArdle, J. J., 588, 590, 593, 594, 595, 596, 608, 610
McAuley, E., 735, 739
McCabe, M., 4, 18
McCaffrey, N., 712, 720
McCandliss, B. D., 670, 681
McCarthy, G., 667, 668, 670, 681
McClelland, D. C., 157, 164
McClelland, G. H., 728, 740
McClellend, C. E., 113, 122
McCloskey, M. J., 412, 413, 418, 560, 567
McCloy, R., 254, 261
McComb, K., 555, 567
McCullough, J., 304, 316
McCutchen, D., 401
McDaniel, L. S., 433, 438
McDaniel, M. A., 618, 631, 691, 702, 734, 739
McDermott, J., 24, 29, 44, 65, 88, 94, 102, 569, 583, 614, 630, 667, 680
McDonald, J. E., 215, 219
McDonald, N., 215, 221
McEvoy, G. M., 726, 740
McGeorge, P., 24, 28
McGrath, C., 633, 650
McGrath, J. E., 305, 317
McGrath, S. K., 592, 608
McGraw, K. L., 204, 221
McGregor, S. J., 528, 537, 598, 599, 610
McGrew, K. S., 588, 590, 594, 610
McGuire, M., 574, 583
McHugh, A., 406, 411, 418
McHugo, M., 662, 667, 678
McIntosh, N., 174, 178, 181
McKeithen, K. B., 51, 65, 379, 386
McKelvie, S. J., 225, 240
McKenna, F. P., 363, 370, 371, 648, 650
McKinney, E. H., 693, 702
McKinnon, A. L., 305, 317
McLaughlin, J. P., 52, 67
McLennan, J., 445, 452
McManus, I. C., 254, 261
McMorris, T., 256, 261
McNeese, M., 200
McNemar, Q., 164
McPherson, G. E., 461, 469, 470, 711, 720
McPherson, J. A., 445, 448, 453
McPherson, S. L., 234, 239, 471, 474, 475, 479, 485, 486
Means, B., 204, 221
Means, M. L., 179, 183
Mechanic, D., 106, 122
Medin, D. L., 180, 183, 268, 284, 342, 352, 599, 610
Medina, J. J., 593, 610
Medsker, G. J., 187, 200, 448, 450, 618, 621, 622, 630
Meehl, P. E., 41, 65, 164, 426, 432, 437
Meichenbaum, D., 710, 721
Meinz, E. J., 728, 732, 735, 738, 740
Meir, M., 356, 357, 360, 371
Meisner, S., 490, 502
Meister, D., 187, 201
Melkonian, M. G., 250, 260
Mellet, E., 554, 563, 564, 567, 568, 675, 681
Melton, A. W., 506, 518
Menard, W. E., 172, 183, 598, 599, 610, 728, 733, 740
Mencl, W. E., 670, 671, 681, 682
Mendes de Leon, C. F., 496, 503
Meredith, K. P., 594, 595, 596, 610
Merlo, J., 645, 651
Mernard, 172
Merrick, N. L., 697, 701
Merton, R. K., 116, 122
Mervis, C. B., 176, 179, 183, 342, 353
Merzenich, M. M., 508, 518, 657, 677
Metzler, A. H., 236, 238
Meulenbroek, R. G., 515, 519
Mewhort, D. J. K., 267, 284
Meyer, D. E., 59, 65, 67, 253, 261, 277, 285, 512, 518, 519, 663, 668, 676, 681
Meyer, G., 657, 662, 663, 671, 680
Meyer, H., 662, 679
Michels, R., 117, 123
Michie, D., 91, 102
Michimata, C., 549, 552
Midgett, K., 514, 519
Mieg, H. A., 9, 15, 16, 105, 107, 108, 207, 221, 629, 693, 743, 746, 749, 751, 752, 754, 758, 759, 760, 796
Mikulincer, M., 592, 611
Milburn, P., 111, 123
Miles, T. R., 245, 260
Militello, L. G., 171, 183, 185, 187, 201, 203, 206, 208, 216, 218, 221, 406, 408, 410, 416, 417
Miller, D., 209, 215, 221
Miller, E. K., 669, 678, 681
Miller, G. A., 41, 44, 50, 65, 178, 183, 191, 226, 236, 240, 474, 485, 510, 519
Miller, L. A., 376, 386
Miller, L. K., 463, 469
Miller, P., 111, 121, 123
Miller, R., 98, 102, 402
Miller, R. A., 95, 101
Miller, R. B., 77, 86, 188, 189, 201
Miller, T. E., 413, 416
Milliex, L., 516, 517
Milner, K. R., 442, 450
Milojkovic, J. D., 524, 537
Mink, L. O., 571, 574, 583
Minsky, M., 22, 29, 92, 102
Mintun, M., 508, 519
Miozzo, M., 670, 681
Mireles, D. E., 534, 537, 726, 740
Miron, M. S., 43, 64
Mirskii, M. L., 514, 516
Mitchell, D. R. D., 602, 611, 724, 727, 732, 733, 741
Mitchell, F. D., 554, 556, 557, 567
Mitchell, T., 49, 67, 99
Mittelstaedt, H., 511, 520
Miyake, Y., 53, 64
Miyashita, Y., 669, 681
Modigliani, V., 506, 519
Mohammad, S., 443, 451, 452
Mohler, B. J., 250, 260
Moller, J. H., 51, 54, 55, 64, 351
Molloy, J. J., 411, 415, 417
Molyneux-Hodgson, S., 553, 567
Monterosso, J., 431, 437
Montgomery, H., 436, 437, 450, 451
Moon, B. M., 200, 406, 411, 418
Moore, D. G., 459, 461, 468, 470, 692, 703
Moore, D. L., 670, 682
Moore, R. K., 132, 134, 141, 145, 511, 520
Moorthy, K., 352
Moraes, L. C., 474, 486
Morales, D., 99, 101
Moran, T. P., 188, 191, 199
Moreland, R. L., 446, 452
Morelock, M. J., 34, 37
Morera, J., 464, 468
Morgan, B. B., Jr., 441, 452
Morgan, D., 533, 537
Morgan, R. L., 506, 519
Morgan, T., 92, 101
Mori, K., 382, 385
Morris, E., 490, 502
Morris, N. M., 405, 418, 443, 453, 638, 650
Morris, W. T., 425, 437
Morrow, D. G., 172, 183, 598, 599, 610, 728, 733, 740
Moscal, G., 117, 123
Moscovitch, M., 668, 681
Moseley, M. E., 671, 680
Moses, J., 90, 102
Mosher, A., 138, 142
Moss, M. S., 305, 317, 318
Moulaert, V., 699, 702
Mount, M. K., 157, 163
Mourant, R. R., 356, 357, 362, 370, 648, 650
Moyano, J. C., 673, 681
Moylan, J., 668, 676, 678
Muellbacher, W., 671, 681
Mulatu, M. S., 736, 741
Mulcahy, L., 106, 120
Mulkay, M., 116, 123, 205, 208, 221
Muller, G., 540, 551
Muller, K., 664, 665, 676, 682
Mumenthaler, M. S., 733, 741
Mumford, M. D., 443, 451
Munakata, Y., 653, 681
Munim, D., 452
Munroe, K. J., 710, 721
Münsterberg, H., 186, 201
Münte, T. F., 464, 469
Munz, Y., 352
Münzer, S., 465, 470
Murdock, J. W., 178, 183
Murnaghan, J., 350
Murphy, L. B., 429, 437
Murphy, M. D., 378, 379, 384
Murphy, R., 106, 107, 118, 123
Murphy, T. D., 342, 352
Murray, C., 323, 327, 328, 333
Murray, D. M., 395, 402, 710, 721
Murray, H. A., 157, 164
Musa, D., 735, 741
Musa, J., 374, 380, 386
Musen, M. A., 102
Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A., 512, 517
Musseler, J., 511, 518
Muth, D., 401
Mutter, S. A., 275, 284
Muzzin, L. J., 352
Myers, C., 673, 681
Myers, J., 98, 102
Myerson, J., 726, 740
Mynatt, C. R., 379, 387
Nadel, L., 548, 551
Nagai, A. K., 119, 122, 757, 759
Nagy, Z., 674, 677, 696, 700
Naik, V. N., 347, 352
Naikar, N., 209, 215, 222
Nakagawa, A., 478, 486
Nakamura, K., 672, 681
Nakayama, K., 667, 668, 680
Nanandiou, A., 481, 485
Nanja, M., 379, 386
Nardi, B., 131, 135, 144
NTSB, 359
Naus, G. J., 234, 238
Nayak, P., 95, 102
Naylor, G. F. K., 595, 608
Naylor, S. C., 278, 283
Neal, R. J., 234, 238, 478, 483
Neale, I. M., 204, 222
Nebes, R. D., 594, 610
Neely, A. S., 548, 549, 550, 551
Neisser, U., 44, 53, 65, 67, 191, 616, 631
Nemeth, C. P., 185, 201
Nendaz, M. R., 346, 352
Nersessian, N. J., 21, 29
Neufeld, V. R., 46, 47, 62, 350, 352
Neuman, Y., 228, 230, 240
Nevett, M. E., 234, 239, 473, 474, 485, 486
Nevill, A., 478, 486
Neville, A. J., 351
Newell, A. M., 11, 18, 19, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 54, 57, 64, 65, 67, 87, 90, 102, 134, 144, 168, 183, 188, 191, 199, 201, 226, 229, 240, 267, 285, 510, 519, 525, 528, 530, 537, 577, 583, 691, 763, 786
Newell, F. N., 616, 630
Newell, K. M., 514, 519
Newman, R. S., 711, 721
Ngang, S. K., 512, 518
Nguyen, N. T., 618, 631
Nichelli, P., 533, 537
Nickel, S., 27, 30
Nickerson, R. S., 438, 626, 631
Nicklaus, J., 706, 721
Nicolini, D., 623, 628, 630
Nielsen, S., 237, 240, 698, 702
Nieminen, T., 356, 357, 362, 371
Niessen, C., 15, 51, 60, 235, 373
Nikkei, A. I., 102
Nikzad, K., 429, 437
Nilsson, L.-G., 496, 502
Nilsson, N. J., 90, 102
Nimmo-Smith, I., 357, 360, 369
Nisbett, R. E., 176, 183, 227, 230, 240, 628, 631
Nissen, M. J., 274, 275, 286, 512, 519
Nixon, P., 508, 518
Noice, A. A., 490, 491, 502
Noice, H., 16, 44, 52, 54, 235, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 496, 497, 502, 672
Noice, T., 16, 44, 52, 54, 235, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 496, 497, 502, 672
Nokes, K., 621, 632
Nolan, S., 710, 721
Noll, J., 594, 596, 609, 610
Nollert, M., 120, 123
Nonaka, I., 615, 623, 631
Noon, S. L., 725, 739
Norcini, J. J., 352, 353
Norman, D. A., 48, 65, 509, 519
Norman, G. R., 15, 46, 47, 55, 62, 94, 235, 240, 250, 346, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353
Nougier, V., 475, 486
Novak, J. D., 178, 183, 211, 218, 222
Nunes, L. M., 370
Nyberg, L., 548, 550, 551, 661, 662, 664, 677
Nyce, J. M., 143, 208, 219
Oates, G., 736, 741
Oates, J. C., 402
O’Boyle, M. W., 564, 565, 567
O’Brien, M. K., 255, 261
Ochse, R., 296, 297, 301
O’Connor, E. A., 712, 720
O’Connor, N., 463, 470, 557, 567
O’Craven, K., 667, 680
Odella, F., 623, 628, 630
Oden, M. H., 292, 301
Odih, P., 305, 317
O’Donnell, T., 304, 317
Odoroff, E., 574, 583
O’Dwyer, N. J., 657, 680
O’Hanlon, A. M., 550
O’Hara, R., 733, 741
O’Hare, D., 356, 357, 363, 364, 367, 371, 644, 650
Ohlsson, S., 175, 180, 182, 320, 325, 333
Oit, M., 524, 534
Okagaki, L., 625, 626, 632
Okatcha, F., 621, 632
O’Keefe, J., 548, 551
Olbrechts-Tyteca, L., 574, 583
Olby, R., 775, 776, 786
Olesen, P. J., 662, 681
Oleszek, W., 322, 329, 333
Oleynikov, D., 251, 262
Olgiati, V., 108, 123
Oliver, I., 527, 536
Oliver, W. L., 491, 503, 531
Olshausen, B. A., 667, 681
Olson, C. R., 669, 677
Olson, G. M., 374, 386
Omodei, M. M., 445, 452
Ones, D. S., 450
O’Neill, B., 356, 357, 359, 363, 371
Önkal-Atay, D., 433, 437
Onofrj, M., 533, 537
Opwis, K., 532, 533, 538
Orasanu, J., 200, 206, 221, 403, 404, 405, 414, 417, 422, 436, 437, 440, 441, 443, 445, 446, 448, 451, 452
O’Reilly, R. C., 653, 681
Orlick, T., 712, 720
Orr, J. E., 144, 208, 222
Orzack, L. H., 108, 123
Osantowski, J., 313, 314, 317
Oser, R. L., 449, 453
Osgood, C. E., 43, 65
Osheroff, J. A., 95, 101
Oskamp, S., 25, 29
Otway, H., 752, 760
Over, R., 481, 487, 730, 740
Overby, L., 500, 503
Owens, D., 712, 720
Öztin, S., 433, 437
Paarsalu, M. L., 245, 259, 478, 483
Paas, F. G. W. C., 599, 610
Paccia-Cooper, J., 510, 517
Packer, C., 555, 567
Paivio, A., 391, 392, 402, 710, 721
Pallier, G., 32, 38
Palmer, C., 463, 470
Palmon, R., 602, 611, 724, 727, 732, 733, 741
Pannabecker, J. R., 6, 19
Pantev, C., 465, 466, 468, 470, 508, 517, 674, 678, 695, 701
Papert, S., 22, 29, 91, 101
Papousek, S., 462, 469
Papp, K. K., 348, 352
Paradis, J., 402
Paramore, B., 187, 200
Paré-Blagoev, E. J., 673, 681
Pareto, V., 117, 118, 123
Paris, S., 57, 65
Pariser, D., 772, 786
Park, D. C., 737, 738
Parker, P. M., 356, 357, 370, 359
Parker, S., 474, 478, 483
Parkerson, J., 324, 327, 335
Parkes, S., 237, 240, 255, 259, 483
Parsons, L. M., 508, 517
Parsons, S., 553, 566
Parsons, T., 107, 123, 756, 760
Pascual, R., 409, 410, 411, 417, 445, 452
Pascual-Leone, A., 548, 551, 565, 567, 662, 663, 671, 674, 679, 681
Pascual-Leone, J., 22, 29
Pashler, H., 272, 276, 277, 285, 519, 663, 676, 681
Passingham, R. E., 508, 518, 672, 677
Passmore, S. R., 479, 486
Patalano, A. L., 424, 438
Patel, V. L., 11, 18, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 52, 55, 56, 64, 66, 88, 100, 102, 179, 180, 181, 183, 232, 233, 235, 239, 240, 251, 261, 349, 351, 352, 445, 448, 452, 598, 599, 610, 696, 701
Patil, R. S., 55, 66
Pauker, S. G., 43, 66
Pauker, S. P., 88, 102
Paul, R. W., 626, 631
Paulesu, E., 564, 567, 672, 681
Paull, G., 475, 486
Pauls, J., 508, 518, 669, 680
Paulsen, A. S., 712, 722
Pauwels, J. M., 476, 477, 478, 485
Pavio, 391, 392
Pavlou, O., 445, 452
Payne, C., 4, 18
Payne, D. G., 236, 241
Payne, J. W., 425, 437
Pazzani, M. J., 97, 102
Pear, J. J., 710, 712, 721
Pearce, C. L., 443, 444, 446, 448, 451, 452
Pearl, J., 96, 102
Pearlman-Avnion, S., 497, 502
Pearson, M., 402
Pechmann, T., 465, 470
Pedersen, N. L., 593, 595, 608
Pejtersen, A. M., 144, 208
Pellegrino, J. W., 47, 66, 279, 280, 283, 686, 701
Pelz, D. C., 648, 650
Pember-Reeves, M., 304, 318
Pendleton, L. R., 500, 503
Penner, B. C., 23, 29, 47, 67, 570, 578, 584
Pennington, B., 563, 565
Pennington, N., 378, 381, 386, 433, 437, 700
Pentland, W., 305, 318
Perani, D., 672, 681
Pereklita, A., 211, 222
Perelman, C., 574, 583
Perez, C., 186, 201
Perfetti, C. A., 54, 66, 572, 583, 670, 677
Perkin, H., 107, 123
Perkins, D. N., 626, 629, 630, 763, 764, 775
Perkins-Ceccato, N., 479, 486
Perruchet, P., 274, 285
Perry, S. K., 402
Pesenti, M., 554, 560, 563, 564, 567, 568, 675, 681
Pesut, D., 57, 65
Peters, M., 674, 679
Petersen, S. E., 508, 519
Peterson, C., 444, 453
Peterson, M. S., 657, 664, 665, 666, 678
Petersson, K. M., 548, 550, 551
Petjersen, A. M., 208, 222
Petrowski, N. W., 10, 18, 226, 238, 523, 533, 535
Petrusa, E. R., 47, 66
Pfadenhauer, M., 758, 760
Pfeffer, M. G., 177, 180, 183
Phelps, E. A., 668, 681
Phelps, R. H., 52, 66
Phillips, J. K., 405, 411, 417, 418, 422, 437
Phillips, R. S., 434, 437
Phillips, S. I., 253, 258, 262
Piaget, J., 758, 760
Piazza, M., 563, 566, 675, 678
Pichon, M., 686, 703
Pick, A. D., 268, 284
Pickleman, J., 348, 353
Pierce, L. G., 414, 418, 442, 450
Pietrini, P., 533, 537, 668, 677, 679
Piette, A., 369
Piirto, J., 402
Pinard, B., 348, 353
Pine, J. M., 64, 527, 536
Pinel, P., 563, 566, 675, 678
Pintrich, P. R., 705, 709, 713, 716, 719, 720, 721
Pirola-Merlo, A., 448, 452
Pisano, G. P., 444, 446, 448, 450
Pitrat, J., 530, 537
Plant, E. A., 699, 702
Plato, 5, 19
Platt, G. M., 751, 760
Pleban, R. J., 645, 651
Plimpton, G., 402, 699, 702
Pliske, R. M., 170, 183, 412, 413, 418, 445, 452
Plomin, R., 724, 740
Podd, J., 237, 240
Poewe, W., 671, 681
Poggio, T., 268, 283, 284, 669, 678, 680
Pokorny, R. A., 465, 469, 727, 739
Polanyi, M., 12, 19, 92, 102, 615, 631
Polaschek, J. X., 89, 102
Poldrack, R. A., 654, 658, 661, 671, 673, 680, 681
Polk, H. C. J., 348, 352
Polonsky, W., 495, 501
Polson, P. G., 54, 64, 237, 239, 373, 375, 376, 377, 385, 475, 485, 540, 550
Polya, G., 91, 95, 102
Pomplun, M., 525, 526, 535, 537
Poon, L. W., 726, 740
Poon, P. P. L., 499, 500, 503
Pople, H. E., 98, 101, 102, 445, 452
Popper, M., 448, 453
Port, R., 57, 67
Portes, A., 756, 760
Posner, K. L., 425, 436
Posner, M. I., 18, 47, 53, 59, 60, 64, 66, 83, 85, 288, 297, 301, 462, 468, 475, 485, 508, 512, 513, 517, 519, 617, 630, 658, 678, 684, 694, 702
Post, A. A., 477, 486
Post, T. A., 23, 29, 47, 67, 375, 387, 570, 578, 584
Potter, M. C., 510, 518
Potter, S. S., 193, 201, 208, 222
Pötter, U., 728, 740
Poulton, E. C., 473, 486
Pounds, J., 410, 416
Povel, D-J., 510, 519
Povenmire, H. K., 253, 258, 261
Poznyanskaya, E. D., 524, 538
Pras, A. A., 452
Preece, M. A., 688, 703
Premi, J., 352
Prerau, D., 207, 222
Prescott, C. A., 593, 610
Press, M., 649, 650
Pressley, M., 237, 240, 710, 721
Pretz, J. E., 431, 437, 629
Preussler, W., 736, 739
Prevou, M. I., 625, 629
Pribram, K. H., 41, 44, 65, 226, 240
Price, C. J., 667, 668, 670, 679, 681
Price, P. C., 426, 438
Prieto, M. D., 618, 631
Prietula, M. J., 12, 14, 41, 42, 51, 64, 66, 87, 105, 614, 639, 653, 658, 659, 667, 708, 730, 750, 763
Prince, C., 253, 260, 641, 650
Prince, R., 621, 632
Prinz, W., 272, 285, 511, 513, 518, 520
Procos, D., 304, 312, 317
Proctor, R. W., 15, 19, 53, 59, 265, 271, 272, 273, 277, 284, 285, 286, 462, 658, 727, 737
Proctor, S., 406, 417
Proffitt, D. R., 26, 28, 514, 516, 519
Proffitt, J. B., 599, 610
Profitt, A. W., 348, 353
Proteau, L., 475, 483
Prusak, L., 217, 219
Psotka, J., 618, 621, 622, 625, 629, 630
Puce, A., 667, 668, 681
Pugh, H. L., 364, 370, 408, 418
Pugh, K. R., 670, 671, 681, 682
Purcell, J. A., 356, 357, 361, 367, 368, 370
Purves, D., 511, 519
Pusey, A., 555, 567
Putnam, R. D., 757, 760
Puxty, A., 106, 109, 121
Quenault, S. W., 356, 357, 359, 370
Quételet, A., 320, 322, 324, 325, 326, 329, 333
Quillian, R., 48, 66
Quimby, A. R., 648, 650
Quill, L., 218
Raab, M., 410, 416
Raag, T., 499, 501
Rabbitt, P. M. A., 548, 551, 595, 602, 610, 728, 740
Radomski, S. B., 352
Radvansky, G. A., 593, 610
Raeth, P. G., 204, 222
Ragan, T. J., 78, 79, 86
Ragert, P., 465, 470
Raichle, M. E., 508, 519
Raiffa, H., 424, 434, 436
Rainer, G., 669, 681
Rall, E., 406, 411, 418
Ramirez, J., 426, 438
Ramsberger, P. F., 77, 86
Ramsey, N. F., 53, 64, 660, 661, 679
Randel, J. M., 364, 370, 408, 418
Randell M., 26, 29
Rantanen, E. M., 253, 258, 262
Rasher, S. P., 324, 327, 335
Raskin, E. A., 321, 322, 326, 327, 333, 689, 702
Rasmussen, B., 131, 143
Rasmussen, J., 144, 188, 196, 201, 208, 211, 222
Rathunde, K., 458, 468, 719
Rau, H., 466, 468
Rauner, F., 131, 143
Rauscher, F. H., 463, 465, 468, 470
Rawles, J. M., 24, 28
Raymond, G., 132, 134, 141, 145
Raz, N., 593, 610
Rea, C. P., 506, 519
Read, S. J., 598, 599, 609
Reason, J., 509, 519
Reber, A. S., 615, 631
Recarte, M. A., 370
Recker, M. M., 178, 183
Redding, R. E., 192, 201, 356, 357, 361, 367, 368, 370
Reddy, D. R., 92, 101
Reder, L. M., 57, 66, 268, 283
Ree, M. J., 617, 631
Reed, M., 106, 107, 123
Reed, S. K., 364, 370, 408, 418
Rees, B. I., 250, 254, 262
Rees, E., 12, 18, 24, 27, 157, 163, 175, 182, 305, 316
Rees, G., 6, 19
Reese, E. P., 313, 318
Reeves, L. M., 786
Rege, R. V., 347, 353
Regehr, G., 350, 353
Reichle, E. D., 662, 678
Reif, F., 686, 702
Reilly, T., 261, 478, 486
Reinartz, K., 756, 760
Reine, B., 476, 486
Reingold, E. M., 525, 526, 532, 534, 535, 537, 693, 697, 700, 730, 738
Reiss, J., 174, 178, 181
Reitman, J. S., 50, 51, 65, 66, 173, 183, 379, 386, 603, 610
Reitman, W. R., 41, 66
Rellinger, E. R., 230, 238
Remington, R., 277, 278, 285
Rende, R., 724, 740
Renkl, A., 230, 240
Renwick, J., 461, 470
Reppas, J. B., 668, 680
Resnick, L., 53, 65
Restle, F., 510, 519
Rethans, J. J., 349, 353
Retschitzki, J., 524, 536
Reuter, H. H., 51, 65
Rey-Hipolito, C., 657, 680
Reynold, C. A., 593, 595, 608
Reynolds, P., 513, 516
Reynolds, R., 529, 537
Reznick, R. K., 348, 350, 351, 353
Rhodenizer, L., 244, 248, 253, 258, 261
Rice, G. A., 323, 332
Richard, J. A., 673, 680
Richards, D., 97, 102
Richardson, J. D., 348, 352
Richardson, J. T. E., 225, 240
Richer, F., 664, 676, 680
Richman, H. B., 19, 31, 37, 58, 66
Rickard, T. C., 267, 268, 281, 285
Ridolfo, H. E., 733, 740
Riedl, T. R., 374, 380, 386
Rieger, M., 55, 66
Riehle, H. J., 533, 534
Riesenhuber, M., 669, 678
Rieser, J., 626, 629
Riggs, L. A., 511, 520
Rikers, R. M., 353, 599, 610, 699, 702
Riley, M. A., 513, 519
Rimoldi, H. J. A., 591, 611
Ringer, F. K., 580, 583
Rink, J. E., 234, 239, 474, 485
Ripoll, H., 475, 476, 486
Risemberg, R., 402
Rist, R. S., 377, 378, 386
Risucci, D., 348, 353
Ritter, F. E., 268, 283
Rittman, A. L., 443, 453
Rivera-Batiz, F. L., 553, 567
Rizzolatti, G., 672, 681
Roach, J. R., 494, 503
Robergs, R. A., 695, 702
Roberts, J. M., 75, 86
Roberts, L. E., 465, 470
Roberts, R. D., 32, 38
Roberts, S. O., 695, 702
Robertson, D. A., 497, 502
Robin, A. F., 167, 180, 182
Robinson, J., 26, 29
Robinson, J. P., 304, 318
Robinson, R. E., 291, 299, 300
Robitaille, D., 428, 437
Robson, K., 106, 109, 121
Rockstroh, B., 465, 466, 468, 508, 517, 674, 678, 695, 701
Rockwell, T. H., 356, 357, 362, 370, 648, 650
Rodenstein, D., 464, 468
Rodgers, W. M., 474, 478, 483, 499, 500, 503
Roe, A., 12, 19, 158, 164, 290, 293, 301, 331, 333
Roebber, P., 25, 28, 173, 178, 183, 217
Roediger, H. L., 615, 631
Rogers, E. H., 401
Rogoff, B., 127, 144
Rohlman, D. S., 379, 387
Rohr, D., 9, 19
Roland, P., 664, 665, 679
Rolf, B., 491, 503
Rolfhus, E. L., 34, 37, 38, 160, 163
Roling, P., 174, 184, 268, 286
Roman, S. A., 255, 261
Romano, G., 120, 122
Rook, F. W., 204, 222
Root, R. L., 402
Root-Bernstein, R. S., 323, 333
Rosch, E. H., 176, 179, 183, 342, 353
Roscoe, S. N., 253, 258, 261
Rose, C. L., 429, 437
Rose, G. J., 555, 566
Rose, H., 117, 123
Rose, N., 111, 123
Rose, T. L., 549, 552
Rosen, A. C., 164, 733, 741
Rosen, B. R., 668, 680
Rosen, M., 15, 439
Rosenau, J. N., 580, 583
Rosenbaum, D. A., 16, 47, 505, 506, 507, 509, 510, 515, 517, 519, 636, 666, 729, 740
Rosenbloom, P. S., 267, 285, 510, 519
Rosenthal, L., 305, 318
Ross, B., 465, 470
Ross, K. G., 15, 52, 54, 192, 200, 206, 216, 243, 403, 405, 406, 411, 412, 414, 418, 430, 442
Ross. L., 752, 762
Ross, M. M., 305, 318, 709, 720
Ross, T. J., 662, 678
Ross, W. A., 414, 418
Rosselli, J., 9, 19
Rosser, J. C., 250, 261, 348, 353
Rosser, L. E., 250, 261
Rossi, F. F., 750, 755, 760
Rosson, M. B., 686, 703
Rostan, S. M., 429, 437
Rotchford, N. L., 305, 317
Roth, E. M., 193, 201, 208, 445, 452
Rothe, A. R., 493, 497, 503
Rothman, S., 119, 122, 757, 759
Rothrock, L., 628, 631
Rothwell, J. C., 671, 677
Rothwell, W. J., 81, 86
Rouder, J., 50, 63
Rouet, J-F., 572, 583
Rouse, W. B., 192, 201, 208, 405, 418, 443, 453, 638, 650
Rowe, C. J., 71, 86
Rowland-Entwistle, T., 72, 86
Rozin, M., 576, 584
Rubin, D. C., 296, 301, 539, 551
Rubinson, H., 23, 29, 44, 53, 65, 172, 181, 183
Rudik, P. A., 10, 18, 226, 238, 523, 533, 535
Rudlin, J., 491, 503
Rudolph, J. W., 444, 450
Rueckl, J. G., 670, 682
Rueter, H. H., 379, 386
Rugg, G., 180, 182
Rumbaut, R. G., 756, 760
Rumelhart, D. E., 48, 65
Rumsey, J. M., 671, 679
Rumsey, M. G., 451
Runyan, W. M., 320, 333
Russell, D. G., 475, 476, 483
Russell, S. J., 474, 484
Ruthruff, E., 277, 278, 285, 286
Rutledge, G., 89, 102
Rycroft, R. W., 120, 121, 753, 759
Ryder, J. M., 361, 367, 368, 370
Rymer, J., 356, 357, 402
Rympa, B., 726, 738
Saariluoma, P., 233, 241, 526, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 537, 547, 551
Sabel, B. A., 737, 738
Sabers, D. S., 173, 183
Sabherwal, R., 217
Sacerdoti, E. D., 48, 66, 222
Sachs, P., 140, 143
Sackett, R., 129, 143, 313, 317
Sacuse, S., 256, 260
Sadato, N., 549, 552
Sadler-Smith, E., 430, 437
Sadoski, M., 402
Saettler, P., 71, 72, 74, 77, 86
Safir, A., 96, 103
Sagi, D., 667, 680
Sainburg, R. L., 512, 519
Sakai, K., 669, 672, 681
Saks, M., 108, 110, 123
Salas, E., 15, 154, 201, 215, 219, 244, 248, 253, 258, 260, 261, 404, 405, 410, 414, 416, 417, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 448, 450, 451, 452, 453, 641, 650
Salmela, J. H., 474, 484, 486
Salthouse, T. A., 59, 66, 293, 301, 548, 551, 593, 594, 602, 611, 697, 723, 724, 726, 727, 728, 730, 732, 733, 735, 738, 740, 741
Salvendy, G., 200, 376, 378, 379, 381, 382, 383, 385, 387
Salz, T., 671, 680
Samson, D., 554, 560, 564, 567, 675, 681
Samuel, A. L., 42, 66, 90, 102
Sanborn, A., 733, 740
Sandak, R., 574, 584, 670, 682
Sandblom, J., 548, 550, 551
Sanders, A. F., 270, 285
Sanderson, P. M., 209, 222
Sandgren, M., 692, 702
Sanes, J. N., 283, 285, 671, 682
Sass, D., 400
Satava, R. M., 255, 260, 261
Saults, J. S., 594, 611
Saunders, A., 215, 222
Saunders, N., 247, 248, 262
Sautu, R., 107, 123
Savalgi, R. S., 250, 261
Savelsbergh, G. J. P., 475, 476, 486
Savina, Y., 532, 535
Scalf, P. S., 657, 664, 665, 666, 678
Scardamalia, M., 82, 86, 297, 300, 400, 402
Schaafstal, A. M., 193, 194, 195, 196, 201, 449, 453
Schaal, S., 514, 520
Schadewald, M., 26, 29
Schaffer, S., 115, 123
Schaie, K. W., 326, 333, 593, 595, 596, 611, 726, 741
Scheerer, 767
Scheflen, A. E., 130, 144
Schempp, P. G., 312, 316
Schere, J. J., 402
Scherpbier, A. J. J. A., 349, 353, 699, 702
Schiebinger, L., 117, 123
Schiflett, S. G., 244, 259
Schijven, M., 251, 261
Schkade, D., 434, 437
Schlauch, W. S., 554, 568
Schlaug, G., 465, 468, 548, 551, 565, 567, 674, 678, 695, 702, 703
Schleicher, A., 565
Schliemann, A. D., 26, 29
Schlinker, P. J., 481, 487
Schmalhofer, F., 384, 386
Schmidt, A. M., 442, 450, 465, 470
Schmidt, F. L., 33, 38, 616, 631, 691, 702, 724, 741
Schmidt, H. G., 25, 26, 28, 29, 235, 238, 241, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 463, 467, 494, 503, 599, 610
Schmidt, J. A., 52, 67
Schmidt, L., 211, 222
Schmidt, R. A., 273, 285, 413, 475, 486, 505, 506, 519
Schmitt, J. F., 406, 410, 411, 418
Schnabel, T. G., 254, 260
Schneider, J. A., 496, 503
Schneider, S. L., 438
Schneider, W., 16, 24, 29, 31, 38, 46, 53, 54, 59, 60, 66, 67, 267, 269, 285, 286, 475, 486, 512, 513, 519, 532, 533, 538, 588, 597, 641, 653, 656, 658, 659, 660, 661, 663, 665, 670, 676, 677, 678, 679, 682, 685, 693, 695, 703, 710, 721, 769
Scholtz, J., 377, 378, 386, 387
Schömann, M., 377, 384
Schön, D. A., 133, 144, 623, 631
Schooler, C., 736, 741
Schooler, T. Y. E., 575, 583
Schouten, J. L., 656, 667, 668, 677, 679
Schraagen, J. M. C., 15, 46, 185, 192, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201, 205, 206, 229, 235, 241
Schriver, K. S., 401
Schroder, J., 662, 679
Schubert, T., 664, 665, 676, 682
Schueneman, A. L., 348, 353
Schuler, J. W., 408, 418
Schulkind, M. D., 296, 301
Schulman, E. L., 340, 341, 376, 387
Schultetus, R. S., 526, 529, 537, 538
Schulz, M., 465, 470
Schulz, R., 319, 322, 323, 329, 330, 333, 689, 690, 703, 735, 741
Schum, D. A., 574, 583
Schumacher, C. F., 254, 260
Schumacher, E. H., 59, 67, 277, 285, 662, 680
Schümann, 377, 378
Schunk, D. H., 705, 707, 710, 712, 715, 717, 721, 722
Schuwirth, L., 349, 353
Schvaneveldt, R. W., 180, 184, 356, 357, 365, 367, 368, 370
Schwartz, B. J., 50, 51, 63, 172, 179, 182, 228, 230, 240, 431, 437
Schwartz, W. B., 43, 55, 66
Schwarz, N., 237, 241, 437
Schweitzer, S., 624, 630
Schyns, P. G., 268, 284
Scinto, L. F. M., 402
Scott, A. C., 97, 102
Scott, C. L., 493, 497, 503
Scott, D. J., 347, 353
Scribner, S., 142, 205, 222, 758, 760
Scripture, E. W., 554, 557, 562, 567
Scruggs, T. E., 549, 551
Scurrah, M. J., 528, 538
Seah, C., 144
Seamster, T. L., 192, 201, 356, 357, 361, 367, 368, 370
Seashore, 457, 470
Seeger, C. M., 271, 284
Seely, 623
Seely-Brown, 48
Segal, L., 253, 261
Seitz, R. J., 616, 630
Selart, M., 436, 437
Semenza, C., 560, 567
Senate of Surgery, 255, 261
Senge, P. M., 130, 144
Serfaty, D., 206, 215, 221, 244, 259, 406, 418, 443, 451
Seron, X., 554, 560, 563, 567, 675, 681
Setton, T., 462, 468
Sevsek, B., 498, 503
Sexton, B., 370
Seymour, N. E., 255, 261
Seymour, T. L., 59, 67, 277, 285
Shadbolt, N. R., 97, 102, 170, 176, 180, 182, 183, 192, 198, 200, 206, 209, 215, 220, 222, 407, 416, 736, 745, 759
Shadmehr, R., 507, 517
Shafer, J. L., 15, 52, 54, 138, 206, 216, 243, 403, 442, 637, 640
Shaffer, L. H., 53, 67
Shafir, E., 434, 437
Shafto, P., 175, 184
Shah, N. J., 674, 679
Shakespeare, W., 489, 503
Shalev, R. S., 563, 567
Shalin, V. L., 185, 192, 199, 200, 201, 617, 630
Shallice, T., 558, 566
Shamir, B., 448, 453
Shanks, D. R., 274, 286
Shannon, C., 509, 519
Shanteau, J., 4, 19, 26, 29, 52, 66, 88, 102, 205, 222, 370, 405, 418, 426, 432, 437, 438, 686, 703, 758, 760
Shapin, S., 115, 123
Shapira, Z., 434, 437
Shapiro, D., 495, 501
Sharp, C., 594, 608
Sharp, J., 448, 450
Shattuck, L., 645, 651
Shaver, P. R., 592, 611
Shaw, J. C., 90, 102
Shaw, M. L. G., 102
Shaywitz, B. A., 671, 681
Shaywitz, S. E., 671, 681
Shea, J. B., 506, 519
Shefy, E., 430, 437
Sheiner, L. B., 89, 102
Shepherd, A., 185, 190, 201
Sheppard, S., 374, 386
Shertz, J., 175, 184, 379, 387
Sherwood, R., 626, 629
Shiffrar, M. M., 268, 269, 283
Shiffrin, R. M., 31, 38, 53, 60, 66, 67, 269, 270, 281, 286, 475, 486, 512, 513, 519, 658, 659, 676, 682
Shima, K., 671, 672, 682
Shin, R. K., 664, 678
Shinar, D., 356, 357, 360, 371
Shipp, S., 57, 67
Shire, K., 107, 121
Shohamy, D., 673, 681
Shook, R. W. C., 641, 642, 650
Shortliffe, E. H., 43, 46, 48, 63, 67, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97, 98, 101, 102, 130, 135, 142, 204, 222
Shriffin, R. M., 267, 269, 285, 286, 761
Shrobe, H. E., 95, 101
Shulman, L. S., 44, 46, 47, 63, 88, 101, 340, 341, 351
Shumway-Cook, A., 735, 742
Shunn, C., 57, 66
Shuter-Dyson, R., 457, 470
Sidhu, R. S., 347, 351
Sieck, W. R., 405, 417, 422, 430, 437
Siegler, R. S., 24, 29, 735, 741
Sierhuis, M., 143, 144
Sigala, N., 677, 682
Sigma-Mugan, C., 433, 437
Siler, S. A., 177, 182
Silfies, L. N., 575, 580, 584
Silverman, S. M., 327, 333
Simmel, G., 749, 760
Simmons, R., 204, 219
Simon, D. P., 23, 24, 29, 44, 65, 88, 102, 169, 177, 179, 184, 569, 583, 614, 630
Simon, H. A., 11, 12, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 37, 41, 42, 44, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 87, 88, 90, 96, 100, 102, 103, 134, 144, 168, 169, 171, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179, 182, 183, 184, 191, 200, 201, 205, 207, 218, 219, 222, 224, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 244, 245, 259, 292, 297, 301, 305, 316, 318, 351, 353, 369, 374, 386, 389, 402, 405, 406, 416, 418, 431, 436, 474, 478, 479, 484, 485, 493, 501, 510, 519, 523, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 569, 582, 583, 598, 600, 601, 608, 611, 613, 614, 629, 630, 685, 689, 696, 700, 703, 768, 785
Simon, J. R., 272, 286
Simon, Th., 163
Simonson, I., 434, 437
Simonton, D. K., 12, 15, 19, 21, 22, 29, 60, 164, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 333, 334, 335, 458, 689, 703, 735, 741, 766, 767, 771, 786
Simpson, S. A., 234, 241
Sims, H. P., 444, 452
Sinacore, J. M., 350
Sinangil, H. K., 450
Singer, 476
Singer, C., 6, 19, 690, 703
Singer, R. N., 256, 261, 476, 486
Singer, T., 734, 741
Singh, H., 564, 567
Singh, R., 667, 668, 677
Singleton, S., 305, 317
Sinha, A. P., 376, 377, 378, 384
Skare, S., 674, 677, 696, 700
Skinner, B. F., 45, 64, 67
Skovronek, E., 602, 611, 724, 727, 732, 733, 741
Skudlarski, P., 508, 517, 667, 668, 676, 678
Slagter, H. A., 53, 64, 660, 661, 679
Slamecka, N. Y., 497, 503
Slaughter, J. E., 323, 324, 325, 330, 335
Slaven, G., 409, 416
Sleeman, D., 46, 67
Sloboda, J. A., 10, 18, 31, 293, 299, 301, 459, 461, 463, 468, 470, 692, 703, 725, 739, 741, 767, 770, 786
Small, B. J., 593, 606
Small, S., 674, 682
Smeeton, N. J., 245, 246, 247, 252, 256, 257, 258, 261, 262, 476, 477, 478, 486, 487, 488, 697, 703
Smith, D. H., 91, 101
Smith, E. C., 204, 219, 226, 228, 240
Smith, E. M., 235, 240, 346, 352, 440, 453
Smith, G. A., 726, 740
Smith, J., 3, 11, 13, 18, 23, 28, 31, 37, 46, 59, 64, 75, 85, 231, 232, 239, 244, 259, 266, 284, 360, 370, 374, 375, 385, 400, 436, 471, 547, 549, 550, 551, 614, 630, 686, 687, 702, 734, 739
Smith, J. F., 405, 418, 433, 437
Smith, J. E. K., 512, 519
Smith, M. C., 237, 240
Smith, M. U., 177, 184
Smith, P. L., 78, 79, 86
Smith, R., 100, 103
Smith, R. G., 91, 101
Smith, S. B., 554, 555, 557, 559, 560, 561, 567
Smith, S. M., 653, 679
Smith, S. G. T., 250, 254, 262
Smith-Jentsch, K., 445, 448, 453
Smode, A. F., 253, 261
Smyth, K. A., 496, 501
Smyth, M. M., 491, 500, 502, 503
Snoddy, G. S., 267, 286
Snook, S. A., 32, 38, 615, 616, 618, 622, 623, 630, 631
Snow, A. J., 371
Snow, R. E., 159, 164
Snowden, P. T., 174, 184
Snyder, A. J., 250, 260
Snyder, C., 53, 66
Snyder, W. M., 623, 624, 632
Sohn, M.-H., 281, 286
Sohn, Y. W., 248, 249, 259, 261, 279, 280, 283, 356, 357, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371
Soloboda, J. A., 31, 38
Solodkin, A., 674, 682
Solomon, M., 784, 788
Soloway, E., 374, 377, 378, 384, 386
Solso, R. L., 499, 503
Somberg, B. L., 594, 611
Somech, A., 618, 631
Sommerville, I., 374, 386
Sonnentag, S., 15, 51, 60, 235, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 386, 688, 695
Sorokin, P. A., 323, 335
Sosik, J. J., 446, 451
Sosniak, L. A., 13, 15, 19, 60, 287, 289, 297, 301, 458, 461, 470, 691
Soumerai, S. B., 349, 350
Sowden, P. T., 268, 286
Spangler, H., 727, 741
Spangler, W. D., 157, 164
Sparrow, P. R., 737, 741
Sparrow, W. A., 657, 680
Spearman, C., 589, 591, 611
Speelman, C. P., 266, 286
Spelke, E., 53, 67
Sperling, G. A., 510, 520, 591, 593, 611
Spiers, H. J., 548, 551, 673, 674, 675, 679, 680
Spilich, G. J., 48, 51, 55, 63, 67, 179, 182, 471, 484
Spilich, H., 25, 30
Spiro, R. J., 46, 56, 57, 64, 67, 83, 86, 249, 260, 351, 385, 415, 416, 675, 767, 786
Spolin, V., 490, 503
Spradley, J. P., 128, 129, 144, 208, 222
Sprafka, S. A., 44, 46, 47, 63, 88, 101, 351
Spurgeon, J. H., 234, 239, 474, 485
Squire, D., 348, 353
Squyres, S. W., 134, 144
Sroufe, L. A., 592, 611
Stadler, M. A., 615, 631
Stafford, F. P., 305, 317
Stagl, K. C., 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 448, 450, 453
Staiger, J. F., 548, 551, 565, 567
Staines, G., 496, 502
Stainton, C., 570, 574, 583
Stajkovic, A. D., 383, 387
Stammers, R. B., 730, 742
Stampe, D. M., 525, 526, 535, 537
Stanard, T., 414, 418
Stanislavski, C., 490, 493, 503
Stankov, L., 32, 38, 595, 596, 611
Stanovich, K. E., 164, 292, 301, 431, 437
Stanton, N., 185, 192, 199, 200
Star, S. L., 131, 135, 144
Starkes, J. L., 3, 12, 14, 16, 19, 46, 47, 60, 67, 231, 234, 237, 241, 244, 245, 255, 256, 259, 260, 261, 305, 306, 307, 309, 311, 317, 318, 361, 369, 471, 472, 473, 475, 476, 478, 479, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 498, 499, 500, 501, 503, 505, 513, 516, 520, 693, 702, 703, 709, 715, 721, 730, 741, 770
Starkey, P., 555, 568
Stasser, G., 750, 760
Staszewski, J. J., 19, 31, 37, 58, 66, 252, 258, 261, 268, 283, 531, 536, 599, 608, 735, 741
Stearns, J., 498, 503
Stearns, M., 498, 503
Stearns, P. N., 570, 583
Steeh, J., 497, 503
Steele, R. J., 348, 353
Stefanek, J., 736, 739
Stehwien, J., 250, 253, 260
Steier, D., 49, 67
Steiger, J. H., 606, 611
Stein, E. A., 662, 678
Stein, E. W., 207, 222, 753, 760
Stein, J., 475, 486, 713, 721
Stein, J. R., 476, 486
Steinberg, G. M., 256, 261, 476
Steinhagen, P., 464, 469
Steinmetz, H., 548, 551, 554, 565, 566, 567, 703
Stelmach, G. E., 277, 284
Ste Marie, D., 474, 487
Stemwedel, M. E., 275, 276, 286
Stephan, P. E., 322, 335
Sterman, J. D., 427, 432, 437
Sternad, D., 514, 520
Sternberg, R. J., 10, 12, 16, 19, 24, 26, 29, 31, 32, 34, 38, 54, 67, 88, 101, 205, 222, 349, 353, 374, 387, 599, 610, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626–627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 725, 736, 741, 762, 766, 767, 769, 770, 772, 786
Sterr, A., 466, 468, 666
Stevens, A. L., 205, 219, 366, 370
Stevens, M. J., 384, 387
Stevenson, H. W., 385, 451
Stewart, D. D., 750, 760
Stewart, J., 234, 238
Stewart, K., 409, 416
Stewart, T. R., 686, 703
Stigsdotter, A., 549, 551
Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., 172, 183, 598, 599, 610, 728, 733, 740
Stoffregen, T. A., 513, 519
Stokes, A. F., 356, 357, 364, 366, 367, 371, 445, 453
Stoltzfus, E. R., 726, 738
Stone, R., 254, 261
Storck, J., 623, 624, 625, 631
Stout, R. J., 443, 450
Strater, L. D., 645, 646, 651
Stratman, J., 401
Strauss, A., 144
Strauss, O., 406, 417
Strom, P., 250, 261
Strub, M. E., 451
Strumilin, S. G., 304, 318
Sturdivant, N., 770, 771, 787
Süß, H.-M., 157, 158, 165
Subotnik, R., 291, 301
Suchman, L. A., 131, 144, 208, 222, 405, 418
Sudman, S., 237, 241
Sudnow, D., 462, 470
Sulloway, F. J., 327, 335
Suls, J. M., 763, 775, 789
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., 313, 318
Summala, H., 356, 357, 362, 371
Summers, E., 291, 301
Sundberg, J., 464, 470
Suomi, S. J., 592, 608
Super, D. E., 158, 165
Suri, N., 212, 218
Susukita, T., 540, 551, 552
Sutcliffe, K. M., 446, 450
Sutton, C., 254, 261
Sutton, M. A., 158, 164
Svensson, L., 106, 123
Swaen, G. M. H., 729, 737, 741
Swanson, D. B., 51, 54, 55, 64, 351
Swanson, H. L., 399
Swartz, C. W., 717, 721
Swenton-Wall, P., 138, 142
Swinnen, S. P., 474, 485
Szalai, A., 304, 318
Szameitat, A. J., 664, 665, 676, 682
Szolovits, P., 55, 66, 88, 95, 101, 102
Szymanski, M., 132, 134, 141, 145
Taffinder, N., 254, 261
Tagliabue, M., 272, 273, 286
Takeuchi, H., 615, 623, 631
Talleur, D. A., 253, 258, 262
Tamblyn, R. M., 46, 62, 353
Tan, H., 618, 621, 622, 632
Tanaka, J. W., 176, 180, 184
Tanaka, K., 669, 680
Tanaka, S., 549, 552
Tanji, J., 671, 672, 682
Tannenbaum, S. I., 441, 450, 453
Tanniru, M., 376, 377, 378, 384
Tarr, M. J., 667, 668, 676, 678, 682
Taub, E., 465, 466, 468, 508, 517, 674, 678, 695, 701
Tawney, R. H., 107, 123
Tayler, M. A., 256, 262
Taylor, F. W., 186, 187, 192, 201
Taylor, H. L., 253, 258, 262
Taylor, I. A., 10, 19
Taylor, J. L., 733, 741
Taylor, M., 176, 180, 184
Teachout, M. S., 617, 631
Teague, D., 277, 284
Teasley, B. E., 379, 387
Teichler, H. J., 756, 760
Teixido, A., 464, 468
Tejada-Flores, L., 719, 721
Telford, C. W., 727, 741
Teller, T., 172, 183, 598, 599, 610, 728, 740
Tempini, M. L., 667, 668, 679
Temple, E., 671, 680
Temprado, J. J., 516, 517
Tenenbaum, G., 473, 475, 478, 484, 487
Terman, L. M., 165, 292, 301, 321, 335
Tesch-Römer, C., 14, 18, 23, 28, 31, 37, 45, 64, 235, 237, 251, 259, 292, 297, 300, 305, 306, 307, 308, 311, 317, 369, 370, 375, 383, 385, 400, 427, 436, 459, 460, 468, 472, 480, 485, 561, 562, 566, 600, 601, 608, 613, 630, 683, 686, 689, 691, 692, 695, 697, 699, 701, 705, 720, 727, 732, 735, 738
Tesfay, S. T., 347, 353
Tessor, A., 400
Tetlock, P. E., 579, 583, 584
Thagard, P., 21, 29, 184
Thelwell, R. C., 718, 721
Theorell, T., 692, 702
Thioux, M., 554, 563, 567, 675, 681
Thomas, A., 533, 537
Thomas, J. C., 376, 386
Thomas, J. R., 245, 246, 259, 262, 472, 479, 482, 483, 485, 486, 487
Thomas, J. T., 471, 483
Thomas, K. T., 246, 259, 471, 483
Thomas, P., 730, 740
Thomas, P. R., 481, 487
Thompson, B. B., 406, 416, 445, 450
Thompson, C. P., 540, 542, 546, 552
Thompson, J. A., 480, 485
Thompson, L., 435, 437
Thompson, W. M., 347, 353
Thomsen, G. E., 89, 102
Thordsen, M. L., 408, 413, 415, 416
Thorndike, E. L., 150, 165
Thorndike, R. L., 165
Thota, J. J., 46, 67
Thucydides, 570, 584
Thulborn, K. R., 664, 680
Thunholm, P., 411, 418
Tikhomirov, O. K., 524, 538
Tindale, R. S., 443, 451
Tisserand, D. J., 593, 611
Tobin, K., 82, 86
Toda, M., 424, 436
Tolcott, M. A., 426, 437
Tombu, M., 277, 286
Tomlinson, B., 402
Tong, F., 667, 668, 680
Toole, T., 513, 520
Tootell, R. B., 668, 680
Torkington, J., 250, 254, 262
Torres, F., 565, 567, 671, 681
Toulmin, S. E., 577, 584
Tovar, M. A., 89, 102
Trafton, G., 25, 28, 173, 178, 183, 207, 217, 220
Traxler, M. J., 402
Trehub, S., 593, 608
Trépos, J., 111, 123
Trollip, S. R., 641, 651
Trollope, A., 712, 721
Trott, A. D., 235, 240
Trott, A. L., 352
Trudel, P., 474, 484
Tsang, P. S., 356, 357, 360, 371
Tschirhart, M. D., 15, 41, 421, 637
Tsevat, J., 434, 437
Tucker, R. G., 180, 184, 356, 357, 365, 370
Tuckman, B. W., 78, 86
Tuffiash, M. I., 524, 532, 534, 535, 693, 697, 700, 730, 738
Tugwell, P., 352
Tulhoski, S. W., 32, 37
Tully, M. P., 349, 352
Tulving, E., 57, 67, 385
Tulviste, P., 576, 584
Turkeltaub, P. E., 670, 682
Turley, R. T., 374, 383, 387
Turnbull, J., 349, 353
Turne, C. W., 213, 219
Turner, A. A., 54, 64, 373, 375, 376, 377, 385
Turner, R., 657, 662, 663, 671, 680
Turner, S., 106, 120, 123
Turvey, M. T., 513, 514, 516, 517, 519, 520
Tversky, A., 93, 96, 103, 404, 405, 409, 416, 418, 425, 434, 437
Tweney, R. D., 578, 584
Tyler, S., 47, 52, 67
Tzourio-Mazoyer, N., 563, 564, 568, 675, 681
Uehara, M. A., 414, 418
Ujimoto, K. V., 305, 318
Ulijaszek, S. J., 688, 703
Ullén, F., 674, 677, 696, 700
Umiltà, C., 271, 272, 273, 286
Underwood, G., 356, 357, 362, 363, 364, 369, 371, 648, 651
Ungerleider, L. G., 656, 657, 662, 663, 667, 668, 671, 679, 680, 682
Urcuioli, P., 273, 286
U.S. Army, 410, 411, 412
U.S. Marine Corps
Valentin, D., 686, 703
Valentine, E. R., 11, 16, 21, 54, 60, 235, 236, 237, 241, 460, 470, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 547, 548, 551, 552, 674, 693
Valentine, R. J., 347, 353
Valentini, G. L., 533, 537
van Amelsvoort, L. G. P. M., 729, 737, 741
van Berlo, M., 195, 201
van Breukelen, G. J. P., 494, 503
Van Cott, H. P., 187, 200
Van Daele, A., 208, 219
Vandenberghe, R., 667, 668, 679
van der Heijde, D., 349, 353
van der Kamp, J., 475, 476, 486
van der Linden, S., 349, 353
van der Maas, H. L. J., 13, 19, 232, 241, 524, 538
van der Vleuten, C., 349, 353
van de Wiel, M. W., 353
van Dijk, T. A., 249, 262
VanDoren, C., 76, 84, 86
Van Essen, D. C., 656, 667, 678, 681
van Gelder, T., 57, 67
van Harskamp, N. J., 555, 560, 563, 566, 568
van Hoof, R., 140, 143
VanLehn, K., 48, 67, 87, 103
Van Rossum, H. J. M., 353
Van Selst, M. A., 277, 278, 285, 286
van Wieringen, P. C. W., 480, 484
Varela-Alvarez, H., 237, 240
Vasyukova, E., 532, 534, 535, 693, 697, 700, 730, 738
Vaughan, J., 515, 519
Vecsey, G., 710, 721
Veinott, E. S., 424, 438
Vereijken, B., 514, 520
Verhaeghen, P., 549, 550, 552
Verhofstadt-Denève, L., 533, 535
Verkoeijn, P. P., 353
Verner, L., 251, 262
Verplanck, W. S., 227, 241
Verwijnen, M. G. M., 699, 702
Vesonder, G. T., 25, 30, 48, 51, 55, 67
Vessey, I., 375, 379, 383, 387
Vicente, K. J., 11, 19, 25, 29, 130, 144, 170, 171, 181, 184, 188, 201, 208, 209, 210, 211, 215, 216, 219, 222, 686, 703
Vickers, J. N., 471, 477, 487
Vidulich, M. A., 200
Vilga, E., 495, 503
Vineberg, S., 490, 503
Vinkhuyzen, E., 132, 134, 141, 145
Virji, S. M., 570, 574, 583
Viswesvaran, C., 450
Vitalari, N. P., 381, 382, 387
Viteles, M. S., 186, 201
Vitouch, O., 462, 470
Vogt, S., 272, 285
Volkmann, F. C., 511, 520
Vollrath, D. A., 443, 451
Volmer, J., 15, 51, 60, 235, 373
Volpe, C. E., 441, 450
von Cramon, D. Y., 664, 665, 676, 682
Von Eckardt, B., 237, 241
von Holst, E., 511, 520
von Winterfeldt, D., 752, 760
Vorberg, D., 729, 739
Voss, J. F., 16, 23, 25, 29, 30, 47, 48, 51, 52, 55, 63, 67, 179, 182, 183, 235, 356, 360, 371, 375, 387, 471, 484, 569, 570, 574, 575, 577, 578, 580, 583, 584
Vu, K.-P. L., 15, 53, 59, 265, 273, 286, 462, 658, 725, 735
Vye, N., 626, 629
Vygotsky, L. S., 758, 760
Wadhwa, R., 657, 664, 665, 666, 678
Wagenmakers, E. J., 13, 19, 232, 241, 524, 538
Wager, W. W., 78, 85
Wagner, A. D., 508, 517
Wagner, C., 464, 470
Wagner, D. A., 528, 538
Wagner, R. K., 12, 16, 32, 38, 292, 301, 613, 614, 615, 616, 618, 621, 622, 623, 625, 626, 628, 631, 632, 725, 736, 741
Wagstaff, D., 726, 740
Wahlin, A., 593, 606
Wakely, M., 6, 19
Walberg, H. J., 324, 327, 335
Walder, C., 348, 353
Waldman, D. A., 726, 741
Walk, R. D., 514, 517
Walker, C. B., 451
Walker, J., 305, 318
Walker, K. E., 304, 318
Walker, T. C., 103
Wall, J. G., 648, 650
Wallace, I., 710, 712, 721
Walls, J., 247, 248, 262
Walsh, D. A., 598, 599, 601, 602, 609, 611, 728, 741
Walther, E., 27, 30
Wang, G., 669, 680
Wang, H., 271, 285
Wang, J. H., 11, 19, 25, 29, 170, 181, 184, 686, 703
Wang, L., 256, 261
Wang, M., 204
Wang, Y., 23, 29, 44, 53, 65, 172, 181, 183
Wann, J., 255, 259
Wanzel, K. R., 348, 351, 353
Ward, A., 431, 437
Ward, M., 215, 221
Ward, P., 12, 15, 46, 60, 78, 234, 237, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 252, 255, 256, 257, 258, 261, 262, 472, 475, 476, 477, 478, 481, 486, 487, 488, 693, 697, 703
Ware, M., 555, 566
Warm, J. S., 429, 436
Warr, P., 157, 165
Warren, W. H., 480, 484, 514, 515, 517
Warrington, E. K., 559, 566, 670, 681
Wasielewski, P., 363, 371
Wason, P. M., 48, 66
Wasser, A., 291, 301
Wassermann, E., 671, 681
Waterman, D. A., 101, 191, 200, 204, 220, 405, 419
Waters, A. J., 527, 532, 533, 536, 537, 538
Watkins, C. L., 80, 84
Watson, F., 558, 566
Watson, J. B., 44, 45, 67, 223, 224, 226, 241
Watson, J. D., 165, 775, 776, 786
Watson, P. M., 67
Watzman, A., 495, 503
Waylen, A. E., 371
Wearing, A. J., 445, 452
Weaver, G., 181, 182, 237, 239, 543, 545, 550, 690, 701
Weaver, W., 509, 519
Webb, R. M., 34, 37
Weber, A., 464, 468
Weber, M., 118, 123, 753, 760
Weber, N., 598, 599, 611
Webster, J. B., 272, 286
Webster, R. W., 250, 260
Wegner, D. M., 128, 623, 753, 760
Weinberg, G. M., 376, 387
Weinberg, R., 710, 721
Weinbruch, C., 508, 517
Weiner, A., 205, 220
Weiner, B., 750, 760
Weinland, J. D., 554, 568
Weinstein, C. E., 710, 721, 722
Weir, P. L., 481, 482, 485, 487
Weisberg, R. W., 16, 21, 23, 30, 46, 60, 462, 470, 693, 761, 762, 763, 767, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 775, 776, 782, 783, 785, 786, 787
Weiser, M., 175, 184, 379, 387
Weiss, S. M., 96, 103, 405, 419
Weitzenfeld, J. S., 205, 221, 374, 380, 386
Wellek, A., 457, 470
Wells, L. A., 275, 276, 286
Wender, K. F., 384, 386
Wenger, E. C., 128, 145, 405, 417, 623, 624, 628, 630, 632
Wenger, M. J., 236, 241
Wenneras, C., 117, 123
Werder, J. K., 594, 610
Wertsch, J. V., 576, 584
Wesseling, G., 599, 610
West, R. F., 363, 369, 431, 437
Westerberg, H., 662, 680, 681
Westerman, S. J., 730, 742
Westwood, J. D., 260
Weyhrauch, P., 495, 502
Whalen, J., 132, 134, 145
Whalen, M., 132, 134, 145
Whalen, S., 458, 468, 719
Whishaw, I. Q., 657, 680, 695, 702
White, B. Y., 278, 279, 284
White, H., 574, 584
White, K., 431, 437
White, N., 626–627, 632
White, R. K., 323, 335
White, W. C., 91, 101
Whitehead, A. N., 289, 301
Whiting, H. T. A., 514, 520
Whitsell, S., 277, 278, 285
Whyte, W. H., 130, 145
Wickens, C. D., 249, 250, 253, 259, 260, 362, 369, 636, 651
Widerhold, T. L., 444, 450
Widowski, D., 378, 387
Wiechmann, D., 442, 450
Wiedenbeck, S., 377, 378, 386, 387
Wiegmann, D. A., 364, 371
Wienbruch, C., 465, 468, 533, 534, 674, 678, 695, 701
Wierenga, S. A., 513, 516
Wiener, C., 144
Wigdor, A. K., 33, 38
Wiggins, M., 356, 357, 363, 367, 371
Wikman, A. S., 356, 357, 362, 371
Wilding, J. M., 11, 16, 21, 54, 60, 235, 236, 237, 241, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 551, 552, 674, 693
Wilensky, H. L., 108, 123
Wiley, J., 16, 27, 30, 47, 235, 569, 574, 575, 577, 583, 584
Wilkins, D. C., 97, 99, 101, 103, 530, 538
Wilkinson, L., 274, 286
Willging, T. E., 755, 759
Williamon, A., 460, 470
Williams, 616, 622
Williams, A. F., 356, 357, 359, 363, 371
Williams, A. M., 12, 15, 46, 60, 78, 234, 237, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 251, 252, 255, 256, 257, 258, 261, 262, 471, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 485, 486, 487, 488, 693, 697, 703
Williams, B. C., 95, 102
Williams, J. G., 245, 246, 262, 471, 475, 476, 477, 478, 487
Williams, L., 716, 721
Williams, M., 691, 703
Williams, P., 356, 357, 360, 369
Williams, W., 626–627, 632
Williams, W. M., 32, 38, 615, 616, 618, 622, 623, 630, 631
Willingham, D. B., 274, 275, 276, 286
Willingham, W. W., 157, 165
Willis, S. L., 602, 609, 732, 735, 739, 742
Willmott, H., 106, 109, 121
Willoughby, L., 348, 352
Willumeit, H.-P., 387
Wilson, I. B., 434, 437
Wilson, P. A., 107, 121
Wilson, R. S., 496, 503
Wilson, T. D., 176, 183, 227, 230, 240, 628, 631
Wincour, G., 668, 681
Wineburg, S. S., 177, 180, 184, 570, 572, 573, 584
Winne, P. H., 705, 721
Winner, E., 459, 470, 724, 742, 767, 787
Winograd, P., 57, 65
Winograd, T., 48, 67, 405, 419
Winter, R. F., 557, 567
Wishbow, N. A., 402
Wissel, J., 671, 681
Witt, L. A., 381, 385
Witte, S. P., 390, 402
Wittmann, W. W., 157, 158, 165
Wohldmann, E. L., 276, 284
Wold, A., 117, 123
Wolf, A., 553, 567
Wolf, R., 205, 220
Wolf, S., 171, 183, 406, 408, 410, 417
Wolfradt, U., 431, 437
Wolpert, D. M., 511, 512, 516, 518, 520, 671, 677
Woltz, D. J., 163
Wong, S. S., 446, 453
Wood, T. J., 351
Woodbury, R., 501
Woodcock, R. W., 588, 590, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 610, 611
Woods, D. D., 170, 183, 192, 193, 199, 200, 201, 205, 208, 221, 445, 452, 453
Woods, F. A., 321, 326, 335
Woods, M. E., 304, 318
Woods, N. N., 353
Woodward, E. A., 441, 452
Woody, R. H., 464, 470
Woolgar, S., 116, 122
Woollacott, M., 735, 742
Worden, M., 656, 682
Worringham, C. J., 512, 520
Wredmark, T., 250, 261
Wright, C. E., 512, 519
Wright, D. L., 513, 518
Wright, G., 13, 17
Wuest, V. H., 312, 316
Wulf, G., 413, 513, 518, 520
Wundt, W., 225, 241
Wustenberg, T., 662, 679
Wynn, E., 134, 145
Wynn, K., 555, 568
Wynn, V., 24, 28, 559, 567
Wynne, B., 116, 123
Xiong, J., 508, 517
Yamauchi, T., 177, 182
Yang, L., 734, 742
Yates, J. F., 15, 41, 243, 262, 421, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 430, 432, 433, 434, 437, 438, 635
Ye, N., 379, 387
Yengo, L., 47, 52, 67, 205, 220
Yesavage, J. A., 549, 552, 733, 741
Yeung, R. Y. M., 347, 352
Yin, R. K., 668, 682
Young, B., 482, 487, 488
Young, C. A., 432, 438
Young, J., 664, 665, 679
Young, K., 573, 583
Yovel, G., 667, 668, 682
Yuasa, M., 327, 335
Zaccaro, S. J., 441, 443, 444, 451, 452, 453
Zacks, R. T., 350, 726, 738
Zadeh, L., 96, 103
Zago, L., 554, 563, 564, 567, 568, 675, 681
Zajac, H., 664, 680
Zakay, E., 448, 453
Zakrajsek, D. B., 314, 315, 316
Zall, P. M., 401
Zanone, P. G., 514, 520
Zazanis, M., 444, 453
Zeffiro, T. A., 670, 682
Zeidner, M., 705, 713, 719
Zeisig, R. L., 445, 448, 453
Zeitz, C. M., 52, 68
Zelaznik, H., 519
Zelinski, E. M., 593, 609
Zhuang, J., 533, 534
Zhuang, P., 662, 663, 679
Zhukov, L., 251, 262
Zickar, M. J., 323, 324, 325, 330, 335
Ziegler, A., 464, 468, 527, 536
Ziemann, U., 671, 681
Zimmer, H. D., 496, 500, 501
Zimmerman, B. J., 14, 16, 55, 60, 402, 461, 469, 693, 699, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 760
Zorzi, M., 271, 272, 273, 286
Zsambok, C. E., 171, 183, 200, 206, 221, 367, 371, 403, 404, 408, 410, 413, 417, 419, 426, 436, 437, 438, 451
Zuckerman, H., 12, 19, 117, 123, 291, 293, 301, 323, 332, 335
Zusne, L., 322, 335
Zwaan, R. A., 593, 610
abacus, 53, 549
Abelard, Peter, 74
abilities, 155. See also cognitive abilities; natural ability
age-vulnerable, 593
attention not focused specifically to level of, 161
attenuated by age-correlated factors, 725
characterizing expertise, 598
complex, 724
developing at different rates, 473
differential patterns of, 34
expertise as a form of, 616
expertise decoupled from, 730
mathematical, 554, 563
in mature adulthood, 598
practical intelligence and general, 616
practice as compensation for differences, 459
principal classes of, 589–591
producing scores on a particular ability test, 589
selectivity of arithmetical, 560
skilled performance and determinants of, 459
supporting reasoning, 590
task-specific confidence in, 158
traditional notion of student aptitude as, 79
ability predictors
of individual differences, 162
matching with criteria, 157
absent evidence identification, 572
absolute expertise, 21, 22
absorption in writing, 395
Absorption personality trait, 159
abstract concepts
program comprehension based on, 378
rendering, 392
abstract disciplines, 71
abstract goals, 378
abstract language, 392
abstract questions, 25
abstract representations
essential in blindfold chess, 531
retrieving appropriate material from memory, 52
slow acquisition of, 52
abstracted features, 54
abstraction
aiding utilization of knowledge and reasoning, 52
of events, 54
hierarchy, 188, 196
levels of, 210
in metacognition recall, 711
Abstraction-Decomposition matrices
as an activity-independent representation, 210
including processes, 210
interactions with experts, 215
representing the work domain, 214
tutorial examples of, 210
in WDA, 209
abstraction-decomposition space, 211
academic achievement
African village priorities and, 621
practical thinking skills and, 627
academic intelligence, naturalistic intelligence and, 616
academic learning. See also learning
performance phase of, 710
practice methods in, 711
task strategies in, 710
technique-oriented strategies in, 709
time management in, 711
academic performance, prediction for children and adolescents, 155
academic qualifications, 22
academic success, too much formal, 327
academic writers
anticipating readers reactions, 394
thoughts of blocked, 396
academic/intellectual fields, 295
academies for highly skilled athletes, 9
accelerated expertise acquisition, 329
acceleration of differential reward functions, 36
acceptability, 434–435
acceptable performance criterion, 83
acceptances, 422
accident rates, decreasing with experience, 358
accountability
experts and, 753
operationalized as audit, 112
accountancy, 109
accounting fraud, 235
ACC/pre SMA, 656
acculturation, 590, 605
acculturation knowledge. See Gc
achievement(s). See also academic achievement
continued improvements in, 14
gauging acquisition according to the number of, 324
particular as units of analysis, 323
talent and superior, 767
targets professionals subject to, 112
variation in students, 79
achievers, generations of, 328
acknowledged experts, 98
acquired knowledge
in a domain, 48
expert performance and, 463
situational constraints interaction mechanism, 615
acquisition. See also expertise acquisition
of dance expertise, 498
of expertise, 705
of expertise as a function of time, 79
of expertise in acting, 491
of expertise in a given domain, 9
facilitated by expertise, 623
functions, 267
indicators in historiometric studies, 323–324
process for expertise, 324
of tacit knowledge, 625–626
ACT (Active control of thought), 479
acting
acquisition of expertise in, 490–491
in dance, 501
empirical investigations, 491–495
expertise in, 489–497
history of, 489–490
long-term working memory and, 496
as a teachable system, 490
technique training, 490
theoretical issues on expertise in, 496–497
as unique performances, 490
acting quality as a control variable in the directors study, 330
acting with, distinguished from being in the presence of, 312
action sequences, 188
actions
acceptance of experts based on, 426
in activity studies, 313
consequences of, 512
as key decision features, 423
producing particular consequences, 574
in production rules, 92
tight coupling with perception, 480
activation strategies, self-regulatory training and, 718
active deployment period of cognitive systems engineering, 193
active experiencing
in actor role learning, 493–494
cognitive aging and Alzheimer’s disease research, 496
non-actor memory enhancement and, 496
activities
abbreviated list of, 309
adding to an Abstraction-Decomposition matrix, 210
adding up to minutes per day, 311
for the diary format, 312
as how people “chunk” their day, 135
identity-related, 137
micro analysis of, 303
in national time studies, 311
in time diaries, 311
in a time use study, 309
activity episodes. See episodes
activity list, 309
activity overlay, 212
activity statements, 211
activity studies, 313
activity theory, 137
activity-dependent plasticity, 565
activity-oriented record, 139
actor
affective on-stage experience, 494
breathing and emotion generation by, 495
character intentions and meaning inferences by, 492
character utterance reasons and memorization, 491
communication by, 490
dramatic role emotions of, 495
dramatic situation involvement, 490
emotion generation, 494–495
emotional involvement of, 491
experiencing of character mental life, 493
expertise in physiological and psychological investigations, 495
as experts, 489
immune system and affective states, 495
learning stages, 493
learning strategies use by non-actors, 496
long-term retention of roles, 494
long-term role and verbal recall, 494
mask method of training, 491
memorization by, 491
performance feelings and, 495
role retention and access, 491–494
script segmentation and expert chunks, 493
Shakespearean role memory of, 491
subject-performed tasks and, 496–497
training program methods, 491
virtual reality scenario models, 495
word retrieval by, 491
actor’s paradox, 494
actual performance, measures of, 323
ADAPT, 368
adaptation
effective forms of, 713
expert team optimization and, 446
expertise as, 57–59
improving by straining physiological systems, 695–696
input-throughput-output model of team, 442
musician perceptual-motor, 465
musician physiological, 464–465
adaptive abilities, 614
adaptive aiding, 192
adaptive cycle, 442
adaptive expertise, 377, 383
adaptive inferences
effects of self-regulatory training on, 715–716
self-regulation and, 713
adaptive intellect, tacit knowledge as resource for, 617
adaptive performance of expert teams, 440
adaptive team performance, 442
adaptive training, 662
adult development
capabilities not declining during, 595–596
declining capacities during, 593–595
of expertise, 601–602
adults. See also older adults
brain plasticity as limited in, 657
exceptional performance not yet predictable, 292
expertise development socialization, 757
perceptual learning capabilities of, 283
words known by college-educated, 178
writing as knowledge transforming, 398
advance visual cues, experts using, 476
advanced ages, general benefits of expertise, 735–736
The Advanced Decision Architectures Collaborative Technology Alliance, 207
Advanced Placement classes, encouraging participation, 36
advanced placement courses for gifted students, 34
adverse and stressful conditions, 382
aerobic fitness, 695
aerodromes, 777
aerospace engineers, 35
aesthetic decisions, jazz improvisation and, 460–462
affective experience of actors on-stage, 494
affective processes in self-regulation, 706
affective psychopathology, 157
affective states
of actors, 493
actors immune systems and, 496
of expert teams, 444
affective traits, 155, 157. See also personality traits
AFQT. See Armed Forces Qualifying Test
Africa
drummers, 464
tacit knowledge inventory of Kenyan children, 621
Afro-American students, historical alternative narrative and, 576
age. See also aging
ceilings in the Roe and Bloom studies, 294
as a chess skill predictor, 534
curve for expert performance in various domains, 320
decline in memory with, 548
declines in general abilities with, 157
differences in cognitive performance, 549
effect on the expected performance of an individual, 326
by expertise, 729
expertise decline compensation with, 462
for formal instruction in dance, 498
functions based on career age, 330
matching on, 358
performance changes as a function of, 323
practice efficiency and, 459
relation to achievement, 324, 329
relation with expert performance, 326
Age and Achievement, 321, 329
age-achievement function for directors, 330
age-based interactions with practice, 481
age-by-expertise designs, 728
age-comparative studies, 728
age-creativity relationship, 330
age-effects, demonstration of expertise-moderation for, 728
age-graded declines in performance IQ, 726
age-graded stability of performance, 729
agents
in decision making process, 429
experts as, 136
workers as, 128
age-performance curves, 329, 330
age-performance function, 331
age-performance studies, concerning world-class expertise, 329
age-related changes
in everyday cognitive functioning and leisurely activities, 732
in processing, 725–726
in professional skills, 732
age-related constraints, 734–735
age-related decline
differential sensitivity of skills to, 733–734
expert mechanisms as compensatory means for, 730
age-related deficits, 549
age-related performance declines, 726
age-related reductions in music performance, 699
age-related slowing, 723, 726
age-vulnerable abilities, 593
aggregated data, artifactual decrement in, 326
aggregated longitudinal design, 325
aggregation error, 326
aging. See also adults; age; maturity; negative age-effects; older adults; older experts
benefits of expertise during, 735–736
cognitive, 496
cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor functions, 726
compensatory effects of expertise, 365
decline in speed of performance and thinking, 594
expertise and, 723–737
interacting with knowledge processes, 534
learning skills, 657
medical expertise and, 348–349
AGL (altitude above ground level), 360
AI (artificial intelligence)
applying to cockpit automation, 192
branches of, 89
brief history of, 89–91
common sense behavior in programs, 99
developments within, 48
earliest programs, 43
first computer program, 42
incorporating the knowledge of experts, 12
problem solving models and, 530
programming, 495
progression from weak to strong methods, 48
research focusing on expert systems, 90–91
as the “science of weak methods”, 43
scientific goal of, 87
Air Force, Academy cadet pilots and experienced, 250
Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, 77
air traffic control (ATC)
acquiring a scan pattern, 361
expertise in, 361
experts better at time-sharing tasks, 361
taxing skills to act upon unpredictable events, 733
training study, 725
air traffic controllers
apprentice performing tasks serially, 361
expert solving violations and deviations alternately, 367
expert team self-organization, 448
information skills and experience, 640
mental models, 366
skill acquisition experiment with tasks, 151
transcriptions of, 361
aircraft, control system development, 777–779
airline pilots, incidents attributable to errors made by, 359
airline scheduling, 94
air-to-air and air-to-ground fighter concepts, 365
Aitken, Alexander
as a calculator, 560
natural all-round superiority, 545
number intimacy and, 561
study of, 554
superior memory of, 542
alexia, pure, 670
algorithm(s)
based on task instructions, 267
for calendrical calculation, 561
as reasoning strategies, 48
use by expert calculators, 558
algorithmic procedures, 268, 281
altitude about ground level (AGL), 360
altruism. See service orientation
Alzheimer’s disease, 496
American experts, studies focused on, 294
American Nobel laureates, 291
Americans, error to study only, 295
amnesic syndrome, 544
amygdula, 656
anaesthesia technical skills, 347
analogical reasoning, 92
aiding productive, 52
decision making depending upon, 33
analogies
permitting efficient problem-solving by experts, 344
reasoning with, 594
solving chess combinations, 532
analyses
of tasks, 185
of tough cases, 206
analysts, 752
analytic concepts for what is happening in a natural setting, 137
analytic decision making as mode of, 430
analytical inquiry, 344
analytical intelligence, triarchic theory and, 616
analytical knowledge, 342, 344
aligning with “semantic memory”, 342
vs. exemplar knowledge, 346
ancient period, expertise in, 72
ancient texts, 74
ancient views of skill building and expertise, 70–72
angular gyrus, 671
Annual Review of Psychology, music studies in, 467
antecedent events
historical causes and, 580
presence of temporally, 579
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), 664
anterior cingulate cortex/pre-supplementary motor area (ACC/pre SMA), 656
anterior insula, 656
anthropologists, cognitive, 243
anthropology
distinction between two kinds of data, 139
ethnography originally associated most strongly with, 129
history and methods of, 137
time use literature on, 305
visual, 129–130
anticipation
cognitive representations mediating skilled, 697
decision making and, 475–476
decision results as beyond, 424
anticipatory skill, 478
Antique Coin Problem, 764
anxiety, skill demands and, 395
apologist experts, 119
applicants, matching with suitable opportunities, 160
applications of expert systems, 93–95
applied researchers, carrying out task analysis, 186
applied skills
building, 70
movement, 74
apprehension, studies measuring span of, 591
apprentice(s), 22
attempting to become, 218
changes in relations with masters, 9
of craftsmen, 5, 74
specific deficits in structures of, 365
aptitude
in Carroll’s system, 79
complexes, 159
Aquinas, 74
archery, 481, 709
architects, visualization abilities of, 602
architectural design, application of proxemics for, 130
architecture of the brain, 655–658
arete, taught by Sophists, 71
arguments
in a narrative, 574
as overall structures of problem solutions, 577
structure of, 573, 581
aristocracy, 118
Aristotle
discussing arguments, 573
gathering knowledge from professional reports, 5
structure of sequences of thoughts, 224
arithmetic problems, 280–281, 560
arithmetical association, mathematical prodigies and, 554
arithmetical facts, 560
arithmetical memory, 564
arithmetical prodigies, 554
Armed Forces Qualifying Test (AFQT), 33, 36
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), 32
Armstrong, Lance, 711, 713
Army
Battle Command Knowledge System, 624
infantry officer expertise and situation awareness, 644–646
infantry situation awareness, 644–646
officers tacit knowledge acquisition and reflection,
structured professional forums of, 624, 625
Army Air Corps, Link Trainer used by, 252
army command and control
critical decision making in, 409, 411, 412
rationale for, 410
arrested development, 601, 694
art. See also painting; sculpture
creative value and, 762–763
Cubism as domain redefinition, 784
expertise in, 16
style recycling in, 783
arthroscopy, 254
artifacts, 325
artifactual decrement, 326
artifactual results, 326
artificial force fields, 512
artificial intelligence. See AI
artificial methods, 42
artistic creativity, 765, 766
artistic fields, 295
artistic interests, 159
artistic performance
acting as, 489–497
dance as, 497–501
artists as explorers, 783
Asimov, Issac, 325, 399
Asperger’s syndrome, 541
assessments
case-study scenarios, 619–620
domain specific knowledge and tacit knowledge and intelligence, 621
included in historiometric inquiries into expertise, 323
of tacit knowledge and practical intelligence, 618, 627
association tests, measuring TSR, 590
associations, 557
avoiding spurious, 325
episodic coding of, 656
facility in forming, 596
by mathematical experts and calculating prodigies, 560
in naturalistic decision making, 405
retrieval of answers via, 280
variety of in numerical fact recall, 559
associative phase
of improvement in performance, 685
of perceptual-motor skill acquisition, 512
of skill acquisition, 267
assumptions
about decision making expertise, 426
expertise in a program resting on, 98
astrologers as relative experts, 746
astronomy, required for calculating dates, 72
ASVAB (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery), 32
ATC. See air traffic control
athletes
biographical data on the family pedigrees of, 321
cognitive tasks directly tapping their role, 478
cyclical self-regulatory processes used by, 713
deliberate practice limited by level of concentration, 699
differentiating within groups, 319
dream teams of, 439
history of demands on, 466
imagery used by, 710
negative outbursts of, 710
perceptual and cognitive skills equally important, 482
performance standard of elite, 782
taxonomy used to code diary data, 311
testing skilled and less-skilled, 471
verbal protocol analyses of expert, 471
atonal music, imitation by savants, 463
attention
capacity constraints of, 59
correlates approach for measures of, 524
declining capacity for focusing, 595
deliberate, 705
driver projection skills and, 648
expertise development and, 705
inexperienced aviation pilots and, 644
influencing learning of all types, 282
influencing the specificity of learning, 666
as an intellectual bottleneck on human thought, 36
limited in novices, 57
limits and situation awareness, 636
loss of focused, 605
maintaining focused, 595
in making judgments, 425
of novices vs. experts in jazz skill acquisition, 458–462
overload and psychomotor skills in novice, 644
in perceptual-motor control, 512–513
as situation awareness model factor, 636
in skilled performance, 359–360
stress in decision making, 432
team stress and member, 443
weighting mechanism of perceptual learning, 268
attentional control, 656
attenuation effects, 732
attitudes
about performance of musicians, 464
in a learning outcome taxonomy, 78
Attitudes learning outcome, 80
attribution
expert as personal causal, 749–751
of expert status, 747
personalization and perceived uncertainty, 750
transactional memory and expertise, 753
attribution theory
causality in, 750
expert role in, 743
expert-interaction and, 750–751
atypical experiences, giving drivers, 368
audiences
actor character performance and, 491
actor dramatic role emotions and, 495
actors ability to move, 494
anticipating the needs of multiple, 394
art and reaction of, 763
artist and scientist competition for, 768
expert-lay interaction with, 747
audio, combining, 140
auditor evaluations, performance decreasing with length of experience, 686
auditors, expert versus less experienced, 4
auditory discrimination in musicians, 465
auditory memory in computation, 559
auditory probe, during writing, 392
auditory processing. See Ga
auditory rehearsal, memory superiority and, 542
auditory Simon effect, unaffected by prior practice, 273
auditory type of prodigies memories, 554
augmented realities, 243
aural representation, 461
authority
gained by scientific expertise, 115
of people with experts, 135
of professions and bureaucratic organizations, 107
authorized procedures, departures from, 215
authors
age of first work and best work, 689
dissociating into multiple characters, 393
writing by famous, 699
autistic savants, musical performance and, 463
autobiographical memory, 296
automakers, design decisions by, 435
automated basic strokes, 53–54
automated consistent tasks, 661
automatic activation, 272
automatic attraction of attention, 269, 270
automatic decision making, 430
automatic perceptual processes, 360
automatic performance
cognitive complexity mediation by, 464
not predicting safer driving, 363
automatic processes
later in practice, 266
not modified easily, 269
operating in parallel, 269
resistant to disruption, 53
automatic processing. See also processing
as control network regions released, 660
controlled management of memory and knowledge application, 54
in network models, 271
from a neural perspective, 660
weakness and strengths to controlled processing, 659
for well-practiced consistent tasks, 659
automatic responses
expertise and, 767
tacit knowledge and, 617
automatic stage of perceptual-motor skill acquisition, 512
automaticity
aviation student pilot situation awareness errors and, 642
behavioral fluency similar to, 80
as central to the development of expertise, 53
cognitive tasks and, 639
creativity and, 767
developing with consistent mapping, 269
driver hazard awareness and, 648
expert performers avoiding the arrested development associated with, 694
within expertise, 58
expertise and the development of, 639
experts executing skills with, 24
functions of, 53–54
over load and psychomotor skills in novice, 644
physical skills and, 644
providing a necessary foundation for expertise, 282
recent research designed to examine notions of, 479
restructuring procedures to circumvent working memory, 58
automation
premature, 685
in situation awareness model, 635
automatization
arrested development associated with, 601
consequences of, 684
higher-order, 266
instance theory of, 267
automatized processes, 458
automotive spatial navigation, 673
autonomous decision-making, 113
autonomous phase of skill acquisition, 267
autonomy of professionals, 108
aviation
accidents, 641–642
dynamic environment of, 358
research, 248
aviation pilots. See also pilots
acquiring weather related data from a menu-driven display, 363
age-comparative studies, 728
anticipating the consequences of the current situation, 250
assessing the skills using simulation, 248–250
examining attentional flexibility and monitoring skills of expert, 249
experience and situation awareness, 643
handling of emergency situations, 693
integrating conflicting information, 364
in low-attitude flight, 359
LT-WM scores, 249
modifying a VFR model, 364
novice situation awareness, 643
over load and psychomotor skills in novice, 644
prioritization of, 368
recalling messages, 172
recalling more concept words, 366
scanning the horizon and instruments, 361
selection and aptitude tests of military and transport, 358
situation awareness, 640–644
situation awareness and task prioritization, 644
situation awareness concept and experts, 649
situation awareness errors, 634, 642
in a situation recognition task, 364
staying within specified bounds, 249
student situation errors, 642
taxing experts skills to act upon unpredictable events, 733
babies, Jolly Jumper use by, 514, 516
baby chicks, discriminating the sex of, 268, 269
baccalarii status, 73
back stage work, 135
Backhaus, Wilhelm, 733
backtracking, working-memory demands for, 56
backward chaining, 92
backward reasoning, 346
backward span memory
measuring, 589
negative age relationship for, 593
backward span STWM, 600
backwards-masked objects, 669
backward-working search, 169
backward-working strategy, 177
Bacon, Roger, 6, 690
Bacon, Sir Francis, 6
badminton, 475, 476
balance in dancers, 500
Balanchine, George, 497
ballet
dance as performance art, 497
dancer memory in, 498
expertise sensitivity to, 672
training methods, 498
ballet dancers
development of “turn out” of, 696
female and male coding movements differently, 673
recall of verbal and motor information by, 498
bank managers
older showing decline on psychometric ability measures, 725
tacit knowledge and, 622
Bannister, Roger, 690
Barishnikolv, Mikhail, 497
basal ganglia, 657
base rates
extreme, 154
issues, 154
baseball
event sequences recalled by experts, 179
expert advantage evidenced, 475
expert players representation of the game situation, 234
high and low-knowledge individuals, 48
improvement in both the level of the pitcher and batter, 690
memory for game descriptions, 732
recall of expert fans compared to casual, 51
basic information-processing skills, 268–276
basic level
objects classified at, 676
objects learned at, 669
basic science
physicians reverting to reasoning based on, 346
role in expertise appears to be minimal, 343
basic-object level, 175, 179
basketball
coaches, athletes, and referees differentially skilled, 478
free throw expertise development, 421
microanalysis of, 714
multi-phase self-regulatory training in, 715–716
Olympic dream teams, 439
practice methods in, 713
reaching the highest professional ranks in around six years, 689
recalling patterns of play in, 245
varsity players recalling more positions, 245
Batchelor, Charles, 780
Bateson, Gregory, 130
Battle Command Knowledge System, 624
battle experience, 324
battlefield commanders, 644
battles, 323, 324
Bayes’ Theorem, 93
The Beatles
music composition case study, 770
ten year rule and, 462, 771
Becker, Gary, 14
Beethoven, Ludwig van
early music training of, 770
music expertise domain redefinition and, 784
single-case designs applied to, 325
Beethovians, 393
before and after situation, 181
behavior(s)
acting as truthful on-state, 490
actor communication with, 490
of actors as real, 492
behavioral traits as probabilistic patterns of, 588
decision tradeoffs and, 434
decisions and bizarre, 432
documents disagreeing with in the workplace, 135
frequency of, 313, 314
indicating behavioral traits, 588
in naturally occuring interactions, 141
observing in terms of quality, 314
recording duration of, 314
recording in activity studies, 313
selection of, 313
tacit knowledge as enabler of practically intelligent, 615
behavior analysts, recommending collection of think aloud protocols, 44
behavioral fluency, as similar to automaticity, 80
behavioral genetics, estimates of heritability for general intelligence, 724
behavioral manifestations of expertise, 23
behavioral performance, 654, 706
behavioral relevance, M1 representation reflecting, 674
behavioral self-regulation, 706
behavioral skill development, 653
behavioral task analysis, 205
behavioral theory, questions left unaddressed by, 78
behavioral traits, 587
behaviors indicating, 588
as stable and dynamic, 588
behaviorally-relevant objects, 658
behavior-genetic research, 588
behaviorism
observable environment considered as legitimate, 43
as a rationale for programmed instruction, 77
reign of, 43
behaviorist models, alternative to, 42
behaviorists, 44, 237
behaviors
changes in, 653
decision making as intentional, 423
as probabilistic, 582
subjective dimensions, 314
belief bias in historical reasoning, 579
beliefs
about decision making experts, 425
law of small numbers and, 425
as social constructions, 426
beneficiaries, targeted in decision making, 423
beneficiary satisfaction, 428
Berlin Academy of Music, 459
Bernstein, Jeremy, 394
best practice analysis in military decision making, 411
best solution, experts generating, 23
between-individual standard deviations
on the Kanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Controller task, 152
on the noun-pair lookup task, 153
on TRACON, 153
biases
ethnographers and, 135
exposing by explaining interests, 138
in military decision making, 409
as serious handicap of experts, 26–27
bicycles, airplane control system development and, 777
Bidder, George Parker, 557, 559
big switch, expertise as, 54
bi-lateral DLPFC activity, 665
billiards, compared to chess, 697
bimanual coordination and hand independence, 729
bimanual pendulum swinging, 516
binary (“yes/no”) decision, 509
Binet, Alfred, 554, 561
binge writing, 396, 397
biographical data
applying quantitative and objective techniques, 320
of exceptional contributors to society, 34
biological capabilities, individual potential limits and, 684
biological differences between the sexes, 563
biological systems
characterized by structure, behavior or function, 178
variation in, 515
biological trait, 587
biologists, studied by Roe, 290, 294
biomedical knowledge, 343
bird watchers, 669
birds, 778
birth order, influencing acquisition of expertise, 327
birth year as a control variable, 328
blackboard model of reasoning, 92
blind individuals, M1 representation for (reading) index finger, 671
blindfold chess. See also chess
abstract representations essential in, 531
analysis of players, 225
blunders not increasing much, 531
chess experts ability to play, 599
chess masters playing, 56, 233
chess masters recalling of random moves in, 531
studies of, 530–531
blitz games of chess, 171
Bloch, Susana, 495
blocking by writers, 396
Bloom, Benjamin, 287
approach to the challenge of control or comparison groups, 294
comparing experts in one domain with experts in another, 295
early start in, 298
failing to make comparisons with siblings, 295
interest stirred by Carroll’s model, 79
interviews of international-level performers, 13
reflecting the interests of educators, 292
sample may have excluded others similarly exceptional, 293
studies as theory driven, 295
transition between precision and generalization, 297
blueprints, hierarchical representation of, 172
blunders. See also errors
in blitz games, 171
in chess, 529
due to decreased thinking time, 529
thinking time only marginally affecting, 529
bodily and health functions, age-related changes in, 735
body
dance training changes to, 498
kinematics, 672–673
placing under exceptional strain, 695
Bolletierri, Nick, 710
books, traditional chess training practice based on, 532
Boolean rules, 281
boredom, skill demands and, 395
bottom-up backward strategy, 377
bourgeois family, 756
bowling, 481
box solution to Candle Problem, 763
Brahms work practice simulation system, 140
Braille reading, brain plasticity demonstrated in, 548, 671
brain
adaptability of the function and structure of, 695–697
anatomical mechanisms of learning in, 671
anatomy of, 655–658
cerebrum of, 655
changes occurring in as skills acquired, 653
cognitive functions in the female, 563
differences, 548
domain specific representational areas in, 656
front to back specialization of, 657
misconceptions/myths about, 657
only acquired movements uniquely coded by the expert, 673
organization and perceptual-motor expertise, 508
processing of music, 464
specialised number of areas, 555
specialized processing regions of, 655–658
speed of processing as IQ related, 548
subsystems in and memory superiority, 544
systems for mathematical expertise, 563–564
training compared to muscle training, 675
using more as better, 657
brain activation
changes differing substantially across areas, 654
competing in specific representational areas, 657
during different memory tasks, 675
example of changes in, 653–655
as a function of practice, 654
during mathematical calculations, 675
patterns of change during skill acquisition, 655
practice effects on, 661–666
brain activity
in abacus experts, 549
during calculation, 560
noninvasively tracking human, 653
shift in the location of reflecting a reorganization of regions, 661
during training in acquisition and use of the method of loci, 548
brain areas
activity during memorising, 548
determining common modulation, 660
functional reorganization of, 655
generalized in mathematical calculations, 554
brain damage
abilities vulnerable to conditions associated with, 593
computation and, 559
brain imaging
of chess skills, 533
future memory research and, 550
in memory expert study, 540
brain plasticity
as a function of experience, 548
in the reading circuit, 670
brain regions
in music listening by experts and novices, 465
sensitive to motor expertise, 672
Braque, Georges, 784
breathing, actor emotional experience and, 495
Brecht, Bertold, 491
bridge
age-comparative studies, 728
depictions of bridge deals, 51
experts suffering when bidding procedure changed, 26
players having better general reasoning abilities, 736
British Science Technology and Mathematics Council, 553
brittleness of expert systems, 96
Bruner, Jerome, 191
Brunswik Symmetry, 157, 158
bugs. See also errors
removing from a computer program, 379
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 304
bureaucratic elites, 120
bureaucratic organizations, authority of, 107
burnout, 699
bursts of words, generated by writers, 392
business administration, time use literature on, 305
business management, tacit knowledge and, 622
Buxton, Jedediah, 557, 561
CA (conversational analysis), 141
calculating experts as self-taught, 562
calculating prodigies, cognitive abilities and, 555
calculation
distinguished from memory, 557
mental, 558–559
mental owing to isolation of mental arithmetic, 556
working memory and, 557–558
calculators (human)
algorithms used by, 558
attracting the attention of experimental psychologists, 554
Binet’s study of, 554
brain systems of expert, 564
cognitive ability of, 556
eminence suggesting exceptional cognitive abilities, 556
matching against cashiers, 561
number facts and procedure learning, 561
number intimacy, 561
as number obsessed, 561
professional, 561
reducing memory load, 557
studies of, 554
calculus, AI research focusing on knowledge-based methods, 90
Calder, Alexander
expertise and creativity in, 781
mechanical engineering of, 773
mobiles case study, 773–774
sculpture domain redefinition and, 784
ten year rule and,
callouts. See activity statements
Campbell, Donald T., 758
Canada
first general population survey, 304
first time use study, 304
Candle Problem, 168, 763–764
CAP2 model, 660
capacities
fundamental, 23
in Galton’s tripartite theory of eminence, 556
capitalist economy, interrelating with modern professions, 107
capitals, possession and/or control of, 118
capitularies, implementing educational reform in law, 72
capoeira, expertise sensitivity to, 672
Capote, Truman, 398
cardinal decision issues
decision making process as resolution of, 427–435
type of, 427
career age
age functions based on, 330
of an individual, 324
career choices, 36
career development, 113
career onset, differences in age at, 330
carrier landings, 81
Carroll, John B., 78
case presentations, iterative refinement of a knowledge base, 97
case studies
The Beatles music composition, 770–771
Calder, Alexander, mobiles, 773–774
of creative thinking, 769–780
Edison light bulb development, 779–780
generated by CDM, 215
musical composition, 769–772
Pollock, Jackson poured paintings, 774–775
scenarios, 619–620
Wright Brothers creative thinking, 776–779
case-based or analogical reasoning, 92
case-oriented learning for medical students, 55
cases
experts retaining detailed memories of previously-encountered, 209
individual as highly memorable, 345
cashiers, matching against professional calculators, 561
cast studies, 627
Catalogus Historarium Particularium, 6
categorical form for developing an argument, 574
categorization
as a contrived task, 174–176
exemplar models of, 342
of professionalization, 113
prototype theories of, 342
category search task, 659
category verification task, 175
category-to-response associations, 272
cathedral canons, 73
Cathedral Schools, 70
Cattell, James McKeen, 321
caudate, 673
causal arguments, 574
causal knowledge, 342–343
causal mechanisms, reasoning from, 96
causal reasoning by historians, 579–580
causal relationships, 180
causal thinking by historians, 580
causation
in attribution theory, 750
as a component of history, 570
of events as, 580
issue of, 382
as a narrative quality criterion, 574
CAVE-based American football simulation, 248
CDM (Critical Decision Method), 192, 209, 407
army command and control, 409
coded protocol, 209
combining with other procedures, 214
describing practitioner reasoning, 214
electronic warfare technicians and, 408
example of a coded transcript, 209
platoon commanders and, 408
strengths of, 217
CEBES (Cognitive Engineering Based upon Expert Skills), 252
Cendrars, 711
cerebellar disorders, perceptual-motor expertise and, 508
cerebellum, smooth sequential processing, 657
cerebrum, basics of, 655
certification as expertise, 569
certified performance controllers (CPCs), 361
ceteris paribus, 150
CFIT (controlled flight into terrain), 360
chaining of IF-THEN rules, 92
challenging situations
expertise responding well in, 45
in representative chess games, 232
challenging standards, setting of, 712
chance factors, causal attribution of errors and, 712
changes
inducing stable specific, 698
measurement of, 150–153
Chanute, Octave, 776
character roles
actor retrieval of, 491
learning stages of actors, 493
Characteristics of History Experts. See CHEs
characterization of expertise, 46–60, 761
characters
acting and motivation of, 490
actor active experiencing of, 493
actor line memorization and understanding, 492
actor performance feelings and, 495
actors on-stage feelings and, 494
intentions and actor roles, 492
charisma, 118
Charlemagne, 72
checker-playing program, 42, 90
chefs, 746
chemical plant, operating a continuous process, 190
chemistry professors as novices in political science, 47
chemists, emulating the expertise of world-class, 90
CHEs (Characteristics of History Experts), 571
1 (source evaluation), 571–572
2 (heuristics), 572
3 (mental representations), 572–573
4 (specialization), 573
5 (narrative construction), 573–574
6 (narrative quality), 574
7 (narrative and expository components), 575
8 (alternative narratives), 575–577
8A (differential source use and interpretation), 575–576
8B (time and cultural milieu), 576
8C (disagreement on historical-political-social thinking), 576
8D (differences in cultural backgrounds), 576–577
9 (reasoning and problem solving methods), 577–579
10 (causal reasoning), 579–580
chess. See also blindfold chess
age-comparative studies, 728
age-performance studies, 329
choices of the best moves, 524
compared to typing, 697
description of, 524
expertise in, 44, 523–534
expertise research and, 569
expertise strategies in, 569
experts in, 305, 478
experts playing multiple games simultaneously, 600
historical background, 523–524
Knight’s Tour, 21
knowledge building blocks, 526
laboratory task capturing superior performance in, 688
library size of as a rating predictor, 534
macrostructure of search in, 528–529
measurement scale for evaluating, 524
pattern of maximal performance, 735
patterns required to reach master level, 528
perceptual-motor expertise and, 506
political culture expertise development role, 757
process model approach to understanding expertise in, 524
rating system of, 524
ratings depending on deliberate practice, 730
recognition experiments and, 528
research, 534
sharing similarities with puzzle and other “toy” domains, 168
solitary practice and acquired performance demonstrated in, 306
chess board, recall of randomized much reduced, 24
chess books, number owned by participants, 734
chess expertise
classic work on, 305
compared to medical expertise, 341
mechanisms mediating, 232–233
pioneering studies of, 232
as a prototype for many domains of expertise, 696
study on age and, 730
chess experts
ability to play blindfold chess, 599
choosing the next move, 599
compared to writers, 393
considering more alternative move sequences, 234
discovering reasons for the chess master’s superior move, 697
interference task appearing to extract relations in parallel, 526
participation in chess clubs, 34
performing better in non-chess visuo-spatial tasks, 533
recognizing structured patterns of play, 478
Stroop-like interference task evaluation, 526
chess games, 232, 530
chess grandmasters
choosing better moves, 528
chunk requirements of, 528
level of chess, 524
macrostructure of search by, 528
quality of play, 529
reproducing the entire chessboard, 11
chess masters
access to stored positions, 344
building, 532–534
chess moves based on acquired patterns and planning, 11
choosing better moves, 527
discovering new moves during planning, 233
following multiple games presented move by move, 56
little memory advantage for, 523
memory use, 431
organizing in larger cognitive units, 49–50
perceiving coherent structures in chess positions, 169
performing better in a memory task, 527
playing blindfold at a relatively high level, 233
playing chess games blindfolded, 56
recall for briefly presented regular game positions, 685
recalling a series of different chess positions, 56
recalling chess positions almost perfectly, 171
recalling of random moves in blindfold chess, 531
recognizing a superior move virtually immediately, 697
superior performance with meaningful positions, 169
chess moves
choices in, 524
choosing the best, 524
experts thinking aloud while making, 41
number possible, 525
planning out consequences of, 233
quality of, 730
retrieving potential from memory, 696
chess patterns, 172, 526
chess pieces
configurations by experts, 50
memorization and, 531
new relational patterns for unusual placements, 529
number recalled, 11
chess players
ability to play “blindfolded”, 225
capturing the memory feats of expert, 244
critical decision making by, 408
diminishing return for cumulative deliberate practice for older, 734
first move of experts, 171
IQ not distinguishing the best among, 10
mechanisms mediating superiority of world-class, 232
memory for chess positions, 226
memory skills of skilled, 523
neurological characteristics of, 533
not relying on transient short-term memory, 50
number of chunks or patterns known, 178
percentage not right-handers, 533
planning and consequences evaluation by, 52
positions representation in working memory, 696
practicing, 697
prediction of strength, 527
presenting with meaningful chess boards, 171
rarely encountering the same chess positions, 232
testing the basic abilities of world-class, 226
world-class reporting many strong first moves, 232
chess positions
encoded by experts in long-term working memory, 50
experts superiority the largest with meaningful, 532
generating the best move for the same, 687
masters mentally generating for multiple chess games, 233
rapidly perceiving the relevant structure of, 233
recalled in rapid bursts, 171
recalling, 529
representing and manipulating in long-term memory, 696
selecting the best move for presented, 13
viewing structured, 523
chess programs
search algorithms of, 528
searching many moves, 525
chess skill, 602
age correlated near zero with level or ratings of, 602
correlating with the quality of chosen move, 529
intelligence a prerequisite to, 533
intelligence measures correlating with, 533
psychometric approach to, 524
rating predictors, 533–534
transferring to other domains, 532
chess-playing children, 48
Chi, Micheline, 12
Chicago Manual of Style, 393
chicks, classifying as male or female, 268, 269
child development
cognitive stages and, 758
handwriting and written fluency, 398
child prodigies
in chess, 524
performance of showing gradual, steady improvement, 688
childhood
practice-related myelination thickening greater for, 674
signs of precocious intellect in, 321
writing development in early, 396
children
acquisition of expertise by, 706
becoming experts at relatively young ages, 482
chess-playing, 48
cohesion of texts produced by, 398
environment and expertise, 562
formal instruction in dance and, 498
goal setting strategies used by, 709
learning about calculating, 559
music skill training effect on, 467
music societal factors and, 466
musical aptitude testing of, 457
musical practice supervision, 461
musical skill development in, 462
psychological factors and expertise in, 757
self-regulation in, 707
social and cognitive competence of, 706
tacit knowledge inventory of rural Kenyan, 621
thinking skills cognitive reorganization training, 626
written production strategy of, 398
choice RT, 594
choices, as types of decisions, 422
choose-a-move task, 526
choruses, acting history and, 489
CHREST computer simulation program, 526, 527, 528
chronological age
defining longitudinal curves, 330
as a gauge of accumulated domain-specific experience, 324
chronology, as a narrative quality criterion, 574
chunking, 474
basic phenomena attributed to, 50
by decision making experts, 431
efficiency of in memory, 602
entwined with automaticity, 58
expertise framework based on, 54
of experts, 58
higher-order, 266
mechanisms of, 58, 476
in perception and memory, 49
of perceptual information, 475
in perceptual-motor expertise, 509
via task-specific memory structures, 478
chunking theory
problems with, 527
of skilled performance in chess, 524
chunks, 49
actor script segmentation and expert, 493
dancer music cues use by, 500
of experts, 341
functional nature of, 54
held in LTM memory, 526
importance of the identification of, 523
as independent pieces of information, 59
larger for experts, 50
of meaningful chess patterns in memory, 169
number recalled by experts and non-experts, 172
organizing knowledge in greater and more meaningful, 379
significance of, 569
Cicero, 539
cinematic output, 331
cinematic performance of movie directors, 331
circuit fault diagnosis, 172
circulation of elites, 119
circumstances, naturalistic decision making and, 403
Cirrus flight yoke, 249
classes of expert systems, 94–95
classical composers, cross-sectional time series analysis applied to, 325
classical music
composition of, 328
expert performance attainment and, 462
classical musicians, practice and, 460
classification
concept of, 160
of drivers, 355, 356
class-inclusion, hierarchical relationship of, 179
classroom lesson, watching a videotape of, 173
Clerical/Conventional trait complex, 159, 160
clinical diagnostic problems, 340
clinical knowledge, 342
clinical learning environments, simulation in, 255
clinical psychologists, 686
clinical reasoning, 235, 339
clinical skills, 47
clinicians
use of biomedical science, 343
written cases recall by, 341
clip and cut cystic artery and duct task, 251
closed sports, 473
CM (consistent mapping), 269, 659
CmapTools, 212
COA. See course of action
coaches. See also teachers
essential role in guiding practice activities, 698
more skilled on cognitive tasks directly tapping their role, 478
necessity of for chess, 532
requisite skills for, 474
coactive sports, 473
cockpit automation, 192
coded CDM protocol, 209
codes of conduct for professionals, 108
coding
capturing how people perform, 177
converting observed behaviors or events into quantitative data, 314–316
spelling out episode and activity organization, 309
verbal and imaginal by readers, 392
cognition
active experience principle and, 494
automatic performance mediation, 464
as basis expertise, 614
classical views on, 48
computer programs as formal models of human, 42
embodied, 497
knowledge-free methods of, 90
in military decision making, 410, 411
renewed interest in human, 226
role of in sport, 480
shared in teams, 443
skilled performance and, 462
socio-cultural approach to adult, 758
team effectiveness precursor as shared, 443
theories of human computational models, 229
cognitive abilities
academic achievements and tests of, 724
adaptive use of, 614
aerobic exercise and, 735
astonishing number and variety of, 589
of calculating prodigies, 555
of calculators, 556
correlates of, 588
development of, 592
evidence of structure among, 589
factor-analytic studies of, 544
measures of, 155
memory experts and, 548
modification with practice, 478
neophobic and neophilic reaction patterns promoting, 605
variety of mathematical calculating, 564
cognitive activity
of actors in active experiencing, 493
additional changing the sequence of generated thoughts, 228
cognitive aging, actor expertise and effortful activities in, 496
cognitive anthropologists, 243
cognitive approach of Gagne, 78
cognitive architecture, 277
cognitive authenticity in training, 414
cognitive automaticity, 639
cognitive basis of expertise, 614
cognitive capabilities, 758
cognitive competence, 33
cognitive complexity, expert team roles and, 439
cognitive control, 512
cognitive deficits in exemplars of high intellect, 596
cognitive demands
of operations, 53
of writing, 390–391
cognitive development
of children, 758
importance compared to physical skill, 478
cognitive differences between experts and novices, 44
cognitive effort, retrieving domain knowledge and strategies, 24
cognitive elements in naturalistic decision making, 414
cognitive engineering. See also knowledge engineering
emergence of, 186
foundational methods of, 208
Cognitive Engineering Based upon Expert Skill (CEBES), 252
cognitive expertise, 598
principal attributes of, 598–600
reaching the pinnacle of, 602
requiring experience, 36
cognitive functions
content-free measures of, 724
perceptual-motor expertise and, 508
transferring expertise to some broader, 727
cognitive information processing, language of, 87
cognitive instruments, 574
cognitive involvement, 480
cognitive load, writers managing, 392–393
cognitive mechanisms
adaptive abilities and, 614
case-study scenario and, 620
expertise level combinations and, 640
musical knowledge and, 464
situation projections and, 636
cognitive operations, 53
cognitive performance, 549, 649
cognitive phase
of improvement in performance, 685
of skill acquisition, 267
cognitive plasticity, decreasing in later adulthood, 734
cognitive probes in CDM, 192
cognitive processes
acquired knowledge in a domain associated with changes in, 48
associated with changes in performance, 230
chess players selecting superior moves, 232
creativity and, 761
of designers’ and programmers’, 374
knowledge acquisition and executive, 616
in knowledge acquisitions, 616, 625
in musical practice, 460
in self-regulation, 706
situation awareness information transformation by, 645–646
verbal-reporting procedures changing, 228
cognitive psychologists
describing mechanisms responsible for superior human performance, 83
differences with software engineers, 192
suggesting the information processing perspective, 82
cognitive psychology
collaboration with Computer Science, 42
information processing language and computer metaphor, 44
perceptual-motor expertise and, 506
taking a turn toward applications, 205
Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications, 287
Cognitive Psychology by Neissen, 191
cognitive reorganization, 626
cognitive representations
of experts, 50
mediating performance and continued learning by experts, 59
mediating skilled anticipation, 697
of musical structure, 463
cognitive research on sport, 472
cognitive resources
driving hazard detection requirements, 648
increasing demand of bodily functions in older age, 735
overloading of novice, 649
pooling by teams, 442
released by practice, 53
cognitive science, 42
computational problem solving models and, 530
perceptual-motor expertise and, 505
cognitive skill and expertise, study of, 14
cognitive skills
combining with movement skills, 472
relationship between fundamental and higher order, 53
for team sport experts, 482
cognitive stage of perceptual-motor skill acquisition, 512
cognitive strategies
in a learning outcome taxonomy, 78
of writers, 393
Cognitive Strategies learning outcome, 80
cognitive structures, 266
cognitive systems, designing joint, 192
cognitive systems engineering, 193
cognitive task analysis (CTA), 130, 177, 192–193, 204, 229
of air-traffic controllers, 367
analyzing transcriptions of air traffic controllers, 361
denoting a large number of different techniques, 192
era of, 206–208
major issues remaining to be resolved, 192
novel systems a major challenge for, 192
in reaction to behavioral task analysis, 208
review of methods, 213
from the study of instructional design and enhanced human learning, 208
of troubleshooting, 196
understanding expert decision making in field settings, 192
usability of the products of, 192
cognitive tasks
automaticity and, 639
not directly addressed by Taylor and Gilbreth, 187
practice leading to functional decreases, 663
cognitive text process theory, 572
cognitive training, increasing plasticity, 657
cognitive traits, 148, 155–157
cognitive units, larger and more integrated, 49–50
Cognitive work analysis, 138
cognitive work, independent of particular technologies, 215
cognitive/behavior adaptation, expertise as, 748
cognitive/intellectual correlations with initial task performance, 156
cognitive-motor performance, systematic age-related declines, 726
cognitive-motor tasks, reduced speed or accuracy, 723
cognitivism, rise of, 78
coherence
as decision making perspective, 424–425
expected utility and, 425
historians providing, 574
as a narrative quality criterion, 574
as process decomposition, 427
using to appraise expertise, 425
cohort effects
as challenges to retrospective interviews, 296
on the expected performance of an individual, 326
co-incidence or co-construction of expertise, 299
Colburn, Zerah, 562
collaborative process, knowledge elicitation as, 216
collectives
decision making proficiency and, 436
excluding female actors to a large degree, 117
as a unit of analysis, 137
college students,
college-educated adults, words known by, 178
color discrimination task, 666
colour vision, 555
Columbia mission, 136
Comenius, Jan, 74
commercial flying, expertise in a function of the aircraft, 358
commitment, 423
common sense
in AI programs, 99
large body of “good enough”, 99
commonalities, among abilities, personality, and interests, 159
commonly-held knowledge, 99
communality, among predictors and trait complexes, 159–162
communication
assessments of, 383
aviation pilot situation awareness and cockpit, 643
development of a formalized system for science, 115
errors by new platoon leaders, 646
of exceptional software designers, 380
in expert teams, 443, 446, 448, 449
overload and psychomotor skills in novice, 644
skills and experience, 640, 646
in the software design and programming domain, 380–381
training in, 384
communities of practice, 128, 403
Army structured professional forums as, 624
civilian organization sponsored, 624
domain of interest tacit knowledge sharing by, 623
expert standard definition by, 746
ordered world of, 134
professional cultures as, 757
research on, 624
for respective talent fields, 290
tacit knowledge and, 623–625
companies, power and organization, 754
CompanyComand.mil, 624
comparison groups
absence of, 294
possible created by key findings, 295
compatible mapping, 271
compensation
in extant frameworks of adaptive aging, 731
by older experts, 731
as psychological mechanism for superiority, 757
in the SOC-model, 731
compensatory behaviors of drivers, 358
compensatory mechanisms, 730
compensatory strategies in expert performance, 731
competence
efficacy and, 444
expertise and, 762
networks and individual, 757
overlap with expertise, 81
in sports, music, and chess, 687
stated goal often for ISD, 81
strong positive correlation with years of experience, 349
transition to expertise, 297
competition
of creative domains, 768
to enter medical school, 339
excessive restrained by professionalism, 110
between professions, 754
compilation phase of skill acquisition, 267
Compiled level of expertise, 344
completeness
of knowledge, 178
as a narrative quality criterion, 574
complex abilities, developing, 724
complex acquired movement, 672
complex computation, brain system for, 563
complex human activity, 43
complex systems, high fidelity simulations of, 243
complex tasks. See also tasks
decomposing into distinct subtasks, 278
skill at, 276
subtasks as, 663
complex units. See chunks
complexity
of environmental information and situation awareness, 634
as a situation awareness model feature, 635
component skills among experts, 733
componential training approach, 670
composers
of classical music, differential eminence of, 328
expertise acquisition in classical, 324
faster start for outstanding, 329
composite eminence measure for classical composers, 328
composite evaluation, 330
composition instructors, 397
compositional fallacy, 326
compositional preparation for classical composers, 328
compositions, 329
comprehension
coding for readers during, 392
of conjunctions, 591
relationship to reading skills, 53
situation awareness and, 646
as situation awareness level, 634
of a text, 391
computation
perceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 507
supporting intelligent behavior, 42
as visual processing, 559
computational methods, describing human performance with, 41
computational models
of human performance, 229
of problem solving, 530
computer applications, expertise research and, 405
computer chess programs. See chess programs
computer databases as efficient chess training tools, 532
computer files, 140
computer models, incorporating the knowledge of experts in, 12
computer programmers. See also programmers
experienced performance not always superior to students, 686
recall of experts compared to novices, 51
computer programming. See programming
computer programs
implementing human problem solving models, 11
performing challenging cognitive tasks, 226
strategy of reading and comprehending, 380
computer science
collaboration with cognitive psychology, 42
study of expertise in, 14
computer simulations
confirming chunking and template predictions, 527
with MAPP, 527
of performance, 570
computer software developers, 237
computer system
decomposition for a course on, 196
users ideally involved in requirement analysis, 374
computer users, 131
computer-based education, expertise as goal state, 46
computer-based information systems, 138
computer-based models, emulating experts’ performance, 12
computers
as efficient chess training tools, 532
judgment policy execution by, 433
processing “symbols and symbol structures”, 42
conative traits, 155, 158
concentration
for deliberate practice, 699
increasing typing speed, 698
mnemonic training and, 549
points of reference for, 314
requirement for, 692
self-regulatory training and, 718
strong positive relationship with relevance, 307
concept formation
measures of, 594
prototype theories of, 344
Concept Map(s), 211–213
about cold fronts in Gulf Coast weather, 213
composing, 212
eliciting forecasting knowledge, 217
knowledge models, 215
screen shot of, 212
Concept Mapping, 211–213
for the elicitation of domain knowledge, 214
representing practitioner knowledge of domain concepts, 214
strength of, 217
Concept Mapping interviews
articulation by domain experts, 216
demonstrating comfort with the notion of a “mental model”, 217
triggering recall of previously-encountered tough cases, 215
concept networks, data collected in, 141
concept-centered mode of reasoning, 55
concepts. See also abstract concepts; analytic concepts
central to human learning and problem solving, 226
in Concept Maps, 211
learning, 343
conceptual foundations period of cognitive systems engineering, 193
conceptual framework, or model, of an expert system, 91
conceptual structure, expertise as, 767
conceptualization of expertise, 381
concert piano. See pianists
concert violinists. See violinists
conclusion of a problem statement, 577
concrete entities, higher number cited by novices, 181
concrete instances, 48
concrete language in text, 392
concrete questions, novices better at answering, 25
concrete words, recalled by older adults, 549
concurrent component tasks, 663
concurrent measure for identifying exceptional experts, 21
concurrent performance, 664
concurrent-validation assessment, 150
condition in a production rule, 92
condition-action rules, 479
condition-action statements, tacit knowledge as, 615
conditional sentence, 92
The Conditions of Learning, 80
confabulation of answers, 230
confidence
of deciders in quality of decisions, 430
expert team efficacy and, 448
personal theories in decision making and over-, 433
for a rule, 93
confidential knowledge of some professionals, 108
configuration class of expert systems, 94
conflict management in the brain, 656
confounding variables in the transportation domain, 358
congruence, maximization of, 162
conscientiousness, 429
Conscientiousness personality trait, 159
conscious cognitive control, 512
conscious effort, maintaining, 601
consciousness
actor emotional double, 494
flow state of in writing, 395
consensual judgments, avoiding, 293
consequences, prediction of, 512
consistent mapping. See CM
consistent practice, 660
consistent search task, 659
consolidation
blocking, 671
of experts’ representations, 180–181
perceptual-motor skill learning and, 507
consolidation process of M1, 671
consonant item-recognition task, 660
constant relationship between stimulus and response, 32
constant time of exposure model, 80–81
constituency perceptions of experts, 746
constrained processing tasks, 205, 206, 364. See also tasks
constraint satisfaction, as an expert solution strategy, 579
constraints
age-related, 734–735
articulation of, 578
negating an aspect of a solution, 578
psychological, 61
situational, 380, 615
task, 382, 463
time, 473
construct validities, 149, 591
constructions as types of decisions, 422
constructivism
advent of, 82–83
limiting the bounds of, 82
constructivist learning environment, 83
constructivist perspectives, 83
consultants
in decision making process, 429
expertise as probability judgment, 426
consultations, experts spending more time in, 380
contemporary dance. See modern dance
content
as changed by innovation, 783
important to expertise, 47–49
of knowledge, 179
problem space, 391
of a simulation system, 252
of training, 256
validity, 149
content-free measures of basic cognitive functioning, 724
context
expert-in-, 743
expertise in, 131–132
of experts, 753–755
individual and, 758
relative experts and, 744
of skill building and expertise, 75–84
context specific, expertise as, 250
context-bound informal modeling, 404
context-dependence, 25–26
context-free formal modeling, 404
contextual aspects, historical analysis and, 573
contextual conditions of the development of expertise, 105
contextual cues, experts relying on, 25
Contextual design, 138
contextual enabling information, 26
contextual factors, naturalistic decision making and, 403
contextual inquiry, 138
contextualization
as a historical source heuristic, 572
importance of in history, 571
as a narrative quality criterion, 574
Continental Army Command, 77
contingency detection mechanism of perceptual learning, 268
contingency planning by new platoon leaders, 646
continued training, role of, 725
continuing education training, 9
Continuing Professional Development (CPD), 111
continuity as a component of history, 570
continuous process plant, HTA for, 190
continuum
expertise as an, 300
of task difficulty, 713
contralateral M1 encoding, 674
contrived tasks
advantages of asking experts to perform, 170
in laboratory studies of expertise, 170–178
limitation of, 170
for radiologists, 173
study of performance at, 170, 205
contrived techniques, 206
control and planning, abstracted layers of, 55
control elements
higher-level, 509, 510
low-level, 509
control focus, 479
control groups
absence of, 294, 579
comparing experimental groups to, 256
control movements, 249
control network, 655
of brain regions, 660
as domain general, 660
major parts of, 656
reduced activation with maintained perceptual motor activity, 655
Control personality trait, 159
control processes
devolvement of, 480
underpinning expert performance, 475
control routines, 658
control variables
for classical composers, 328
permitting statistical adjustment, 325
control/comparison groups, 294–295
controlled flight into terrain. See CFIT
controlled processes
attention-demanding, 266
causal attribution of errors and, 712
efficient resource management of, 363
focus on, 716
modified easily, 269
operating serially, 269
controlled processing
characteristics of, 659
more sensitive to stressors, 269
in novel or varied tasks, 659
representing in network models, 271
resulting in explicit learning, 269
shift to automatic, 661
visual search as an example of, 659
controlled search, requiring effort, 269
controlled setting, superior performance of experts in, 13
controller situations, resolving undesirable, 361
controls
attribution and illusion of, 751
implementing statistically, 325
Conventional interests personality trait, 159
convergence of findings, across methodologies, 296
convergent validity, 149
conversation as social action, 141
conversational analysis (CA), 141
cooperation
competencies displayed in difficult situations, 380
skills assessments of, 383
in the software design and programming domain, 380–381
training in, 384
cooperative activity, technology mediating, 208
cooperative work settings, 380
coordination
expert teams and, 442, 449
expert team shared mental models and, 446
improving as skills are refined over time, 251
of medical knowledge, 346–347
perceptual-motor expertise and, 516
corporate knowledge management, 217
corrective actions for malfunctioning devices or processes, 94
correlates, inferring ability from, 589
correlation analyses for classical composers, 328
correlational data analyses, 322
correlational data, statistical techniques suitable for the analysis of, 332
correlational method, lacking causal inference, 331
correlations
attenuating between measurements, 155
maximizing between predictors and criteria, 157
corroboration as a historical source heuristic, 572
cortex, faces areas in, 668
cortical activity
consistency and practice modulating, 660
functional connectivity studies of correlated, 671
modulating, 656
cortical areas
changing and adapting function, 283
very different tasks activating the same, 660
cortical plasticity
of normal elderly, 657
on a slower time scale through extensive training, 662
cortical reorganization in musical experts and novices, 465
cortical representation, increased, 674
cortical tissue, increasing for a task, 655
cost of failure (c), 190
cost savings of expert systems, 94
Coughlin, Natalie, 709, 712
counselors
categorizing based on abstract information, 175
categorizing client statements, 175
listening to a counseling session, 174
novice, 175
counter-elites
emergence of, 119
role in the generation of cultural change, 119
counterfactual reasoning, historians use of, 579
counterfactuals, 580
counting
prodigious abilities growing out of, 554
stages in the development of, 559
course of action (COA)
experience and, 409
expert recognition and, 410
generation of, 410
mental simulation of, 406
mental wargaming and, 410
in military decision making, 410
natural production of, 410
preferred, 411
prototype linked to, 406
quality of, 410
situation assessment and, 409
situation awareness comprehension, 646
court-appointed experts, 755
as expert witnesses, 755
as relative experts, 746
roles of, 755
status authority of, 755
use of, 755
Covering Law, 571
Covering Model, 571
covert self-regulation, 706
Cox, Catherine, 321
CPCs (certified performance controllers), 361
CPD (Continuing Professional Development), 111
craft guilds, 74–75, 203
crafts, skilled, 6
craftsmen, 5, 74
creative accomplishment, expertise and, 762
creative achievement, 785
creative activities, role of deliberate practice, 693
creative advances
domain specificity-general mode transfer, 765
as expert redefined domains and, 783–785
expertise in real world, 764
performance standards and, 783
in real world settings, 764
technique and, 782–783
techniques and skills in, 762
creative development, 328
creative domains, curvilinear function seen in, 330
creative expertise, 320
creative intelligence, 616
creative output, quantity and quality of, 320
creative performance, 329
creative process, 761
creative productivity, 320
creative products
double helix domain specificity expertise and, 776
valued and, 763
creative solutions, 27
creative thinking. See also thinking
Calder’s domain specific expertise in, 774
case studies, 769–780
as cognitive, 761
critical vs. random, 771
Darwinian theory of, 771
deliberation and, 767
double-helix model and, 775–776
Edison light bulb development, 779–780
evolution of, 771
expertise and, 762
expertise facilitation of, 768
expertise in, 761–787
expertise modes and Wright Bothers, 779
information and, 782
knowledge and habit in, 767
in scion and technology, 775–780
ten year rule and, 768–769
of Wright Brothers, 776–779
creative thought, 758
creative writers, 395, 399
creativity
arising from chance and unique innate talent, 22
decision expertise scholarship and, 429
as decision option expertise, 431
definition, 761, 762
deliberate practice and, 768
domain redefinition and expertise, 783–785
domain-specific expertise innovation and, 782
domain-specific expertise insufficiency for, 782
enhancement of, 431
expertise and, 761, 763–766, 767, 781
expertise as sufficient for, 782
expertise tension with, 766–768
general expertise and, 763, 782
general expertise in Edison and Wright Bothers and, 780
of innovation vs. value, 763
necessity of expertise in, 781–782
out-of-box thinking and, 767
past use in, 767
tension with expertise, 766–768
in visual arts, 772–775
visual arts expertise, 775
Crick, Francis, 775–776, 782, 784
cricket, 475, 718
crisis in Bamberger’s work with prodigies, 297
criterion
breadth of, 157
for finding experts, 3
for identifying experts, 686
measures defined for exceptional performance, 293
reliability of, 147
criterion performances
developed by subject matter experts, 80
against an expert standard, 81
judging competence in highly consequential tasks, 81
learning requirements for, 83
criterion-referenced instruction, 81
criterion-referenced testing, 80
criterion-related validity, 149
critical activities (practice), selection of, 731
Critical Decision Method. See CDM
critical decisions, cases involving, 209
critical incident technique, 188
critical thinking, child thinking skills instruction, 626
cross-national survey research, 304
cross-referencing strategy, 378
cross-sectional designs in historiometrics, 324
cross-sectional research, 593, 736
cross-sectional time series analysis, 325
crossword-puzzle solving, 602, 728
crystallized abilities, 604
development of, 159
encouraging development of, 595
major classes of, 590
crystallized intelligence. See Gc (crystallized intelligence)
CTA. See cognitive task analysis
cues
awareness of, 408
cognitive automaticity and, 639
novice situation interpretation and, 637
patterns of, 407
recognition in schema pattern matching, 639
cultural backgrounds, student differences in, 576–577
cultural construction, expertise as part of, 131
culture
acquisition in expertise development, 756
decision implementation and, 435
Gc tests as specific to, 32
historical narrative alternatives and, 576
knowledge and language of the, 590
shaping the particularities of cognition, 137
skill value systems and, 466
value or importance assigned to an activity, 328
curriculum reform in the United States, 81
curve fitting in dynamical systems analysis, 515
curvilinear function
in creative domains, 330
describing the output of creative products, 330
customer service
improving in a reprographics store, 132
skill set development, 132
customer-employee interactions, 132
customers
observing and working with, 138
providing assistance to, 132
CYC Corp., 99
CYC KB, 99
cycling, couplings between respiration and cycle rate, 480
da Vinci robotic surgical system, 251
daily activities, time-budgeting of, 736
daily journal, 140
D’Alembert
as Galton’s example, 556
working on assembling all available knowledge, 6
dance. See also ballet; modern dance
as artistic performance, 497–501
empirical investigation of, 498–499
expert/novice research, 499
expressive aspects in, 500
history of, 497
imagery use in teaching, 500
skill acquisition, 498
technique indispensability in, 497
ten year rule and, 498
dancers
imagery and proprioception, 499–500
memory of ballet, 498
mental representation of movement, 499
movement encoding processes of, 499
music cues use by, 500
sensorimotor proprioception dominance, 500
darts
gender differences, 481
physical stature not affecting, 481
self-regulatory training and, 716
solitary practice and, 693
Darwin, Charles, 565
Darwinian theory of creative thinking, 771
Dase, Zacharias
as calculator for Gauss and Schumacher, 556
as a self-taught calculator, 562
data
aggregated, 326
conversion to directional coordinates, 477
kinds of, 139
observer discussing with workers, 139
data analyses
of observational studies, 140–141
of verbal report methods, 177
data collection
methods for critical incident techniques, 189
methods of time use studies, 303
reporting descriptive, 295
databases, semantic memory as, 539
data-driven processing
forward-working, 24
in situation analysis, 636
situation awareness, 636
in situation awareness, 636
Davis, Geena, 709
de Groot, Adrian D.
analysis of experts’ “think aloud” protocols, 696
influential and pioneering work on expertise, 11
modern era of experimental studies, 523
study of chess next move problems, 528–530
de la Rocha, Alicia, 710
debugging, 374, 379
deceased individuals in historiometric samples, 322
decision(s)
about expertise, 421
aesthetic, 460–462
characteristics of, 422–423
conventions about, 422
as course of action commitment, 422
definition as understood in scholarship, 422
definition key features, 423
as distinct from judgments, 432
by expert teams, 448
good and bad as outcome, 424
high-quality as satisfying result, 424
implementation as project vs. action, 435
overconfidence difference, 430
requirements yielded by CDM, 209
solutions to problems, 431
speed and accuracy trading for expert, 441–443
speed of chess grandmasters, 528
as uncertain, 424–425, 426
varieties of, 422
decision aids
expertise embedded in, 405
medical, 407
decision makers
agents and consultant use, 430
assumptions about, 426
as decision making beneficiaries, 423
decisions about expert, 424–425, 426
dimension performance and, 427
domain knowledge used by, 410
efficiency as expertise dimension, 430
expert as high-quality decision makers, 424
expertise beliefs and, 425
as focus of naturalistic decision making, 405
identification of expert, 425
methods used by, 430
possibility anticipation by, 432
stress resistance of, 432
targeting of taste by expert, 433
vigilance maintenance and, 429
decision making
acceptability and, 434–435
accuracy and recall correlations, 478
anticipation and, 475–476
in the brain, 656
CDM focus on, 209
cost minimization, 431
creativity measures and, 431
culture and speed in, 435
defects in, 404
definition of, 441
deliberation in, 408
on emergency management teams, 449
errors in, 404
expert and novice proficiency, 686
expert systems used as assistants in, 93
expertise and, 421–436
expertise beliefs as social construction, 426
expertise research impediments, 422
by flight crews, 445
formal, 408
formal experts and, 752
information and military, 644
by jurors, 433
memory use, 431
military. See military decision making
models and, 441
models of, 404
naturalistic. See naturalistic decision making
overconfidence and personal theories in, 433
paradigms of research, 404
problem finding and creativity in, 429
as problem solving special case, 422
process decomposition perspective and, 426–427
quality and expertise in, 423
quality improved by expert systems, 94
quality in, 423–427
rarity of, 435
recognition-primed, 363
research as incapable of answering, 422
results and, 423
situation awareness and, 634
in situation awareness model, 635
situation diagnoses and performance stress, 443
situational cues in, 442
studies of, 426
subject matter expertise and, 426
tacit knowledge and, 627
team adaptation and, 441–443
in teams, 441, 445
uncertainty and task judgments, 26
various aspects of, 15
Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods (Klein et al.), 403
decision modes as qualitatively distinct, 429
decision points, used in actual practice by pilots, 198
decision problems
beneficiary specification in, 423
judgment and, 432
value issues in judgments in, 433
decision processes
as cardinal decision issue resolution, 427–435
core of overall, 428
decomposition and, 427
deep contributor role in, 428
importance of constraints in, 579
decision quality
accuracy as upper bound of, 432
decision making expertise and, 423
evaluation of, 404
expert decision making and, 423–427
outcome, 424
decision research
judgment in, 432
possibility issues in, 432
tradeoff issues and, 434
values in, 433
decision tree in medical knowledge, 343
Decision-Centered Design (DCD), 413–414
declarative knowledge
experienced pilots more able to apply, 366
job knowledge and, 617
in naturalistic decision making, 405
vs. procedural knowledge, 88
procedural knowledge, 617
utilizing data-bases of, 48
declarative rules, underlying decision-making of novice performers, 479
decomposition process
guided by a knowledge representation, 377
levels of, 210
decontextualization in task-based testing of elderly, 736
dedicated service, appeal of professionalism, 113
deductive reasoning, Gf-Gc theory and tests of, 599
deep comprehension, 391
deep features, represented by experts, 178
deep principles, graduates sorting with, 175
deep structure of problems or situations, 23
DeepBlue chess program, 100, 525
defense bias procedures, 579
defensive inferences, self-regulation and, 713
deliberate attention, expertise development and, 705
deliberate practice, 600–601. See also extended practice; music practice; practice
acquired performance determination by, 306
active maintenance of specific mechanisms, 727
age and, 729–732
age and investment in, 729
age and recuperation from, 735
age and returns of, 730
age as a constraint of engaging in, 731
age-related constraints improved through, 734–735
altering performance through, 237
amount of, 601
amounts needed, 734
assessing role of, 534
The Beatles and, 770
characterization, 761
of chess players vs. tournament play and game analysis, 533
chess skill acquisition and, 533–534
contrasted to simple experience or exercise, 732
core assumption of, 692
creative superior performance and, 768
daily limit for, 699
decision making and, 427
in decision skills training, 412
effectiveness of, 60
engaging in, 696
environment optimization encouragement of, 562
expert performance requirement, 83, 266
expert performance requirement of, 383
expertise attainment maintenance by, 601
expertise development and, 705
expertise maintenance with, 729–732
extended period to acquire and define mechanisms of superior performance, 16
general characteristics of, 699–700
as goal directed optimized, 460–461
high-relevance/high-effort definition of, 307
importance of, 480–482
improving particular aspects of target performance, 237
involvement of experts in, 306
mathematical expertise and, 565
model of, 472, 727
by Mozart, 770
musical proficiency and, 459
musical styles and, 458
nature of, 731
in older chess players, 730
performance improvement design of, 698
pianists and, 602
by Picasso, 772
potential for maintenance through, 736
quantity of, 705
scientific study of, 699
skill maintenance by, 699
skill weakness and development with, 731
social identity development and, 756
as structured activity, 459
sustained investment in, 259
tasks beyond current performance, 692
technique development and, 762
theoretical framework of, 698
theorizing on role of, 45
typing speed improvement by, 697
for violinists, 691
weakness analysis requirement in, 732
by writers, 396–397
deliberation. See decision making
demand-led theory of professionalization, 109
democracy, 119
demographic information
in a diary survey, 310
on surgical ability, 348
DENDRAL research project, 90, 91
dentists, 35
Department of Labor, method of job analysis developed by, 187
depth
of knowledge, 180
of search, 602
derivative features, experts solving a problem on the basis of, 181
dermatology, 345, 346
descriptive-analytic instruments of behavior, 312
design
activities range, 378
goal setting in, 375, 376
problem decomposition, 377
programming language experiences and, 377
strategies in, 374
studies on tasks of, 375–378
survey protocol analysis and, 237
use as context in, 130
Design at work: Cooperative design of computer systems, 138
design engineers, 408
desision making, training in, 412–413
desktop simulators, 257
details
experts glossing over, 25
tradeoffs with usability, 309
detector creation mechanism, 268
detector sets, 268
development
categories of leading to expertise, 82
cognitive, 478
contemporary view of lifespan, 684
creative, 328
expert performance research and, 613
of expertise at the graduate level, 575
labeling levels of, 300
relationship of Bloom’s model to expertise, 79
specific goals set for expertise, 601
Development of Talent Project, 287, 288
developmental differences, domain-specific knowledge overriding, 532
developmental disorders, numerical concept acquisition deficits, 555
developmental process, expertise as a long-term, 46
developmental psychology, focusing on schools, 130
developmental research
of age differences and cognitive abilities, 588
on expertise, 598
Gf-Gc theory and, 592–593
developmental reserve capacity, age-related decline in, 549
Devi, Shakuntala, 556
Dewey, John, 76
diagnoses, 179. See also medical diagnosis
accuracy of experts in, 341, 342
accuracy of Reduced to Compiled, 344
clinician hypotheses as, 340
efficiency in generating, 235
empirical knowledge of dermatologists and, 346
expert systems for, 94
experts giving more accurate, 235
as a general skill, 340
generating based on domain of knowledge, 27
hierarchical representation of knowledge in, 179
of problems by experts, 343
professional work outsourcing, 752
professional work task, 751
by radiologists, 173
strategy for, 194
by students, 343
diagnosticians, organizing diagnostic hypotheses, 52
diagrams, usefulness of, 95
Diamandi, 561
diaries. See also time diaries
collected by Statistics Canada, 304
completed by Halifax study respondents, 304
completed by violin students, 306
examining the development of expert performance in sport, 306
practice times in, 308
survey parts, 310
time use data accuracy, 307
time use data appropriateness, 304
time use data macro analysis, 308–312
ways of presenting, 309
diathermy task, training in, 255
Diderot, Denis, 6, 203
differential access
giving away to differential utility, 216
hypothesis, 176, 206
possibility of, 215
differential reward indices, 35
for occupational groups within our society, 35
varying markedly across occupations, 36
digit (finger) movement, defining for a particular brain region, 677
digit span
of Aitken, 542
improving with practice, 542
recalling digits in, 236
digital resources, ability to hyperlink, 212
digits
encoding as running times for various races, 236
highly unitized when used as stimuli, 269
visualising on a kind of mental blackboard, 559
digit-symbol substitution test, 725
dimensional performance of decision makers, 427
dimensionalization mechanism of perceptual learning, 268
dimensions, collected in diary time slots, 311
dinghy sailing, 247, 248
directors. See movie directors
discounting models, decision behavior and, 434
discourse
appealing aspects of, 112
concept of, 111
discriminant validity, 149
discrimination
finer by expert radiologists, 173
task specificity of learning in, 666
diseases
medical knowledge of consistent with prototype theory, 344
relating signs and symptoms to, 343
disposition
attribution error and, 751
as personal characteristic, 750
distance, region of, 57
distributed interactive simulations, process of, 78
distributed representation view, of FFA response, 668
dithyrambs, 489
division of labor
expert-interaction as, 747
as occupation categorization, 748
as organizational context, 753–754
as social form, 749
Djerassi, Professor, 91
DLPFC, 665
DNA
model as creative thinking in science, 775–776
Wilkins and structural modeled of, 776
doctors, training of American, 6
documentation, non-literal nature of, 136
documents
disagreeing with behavior in the workplace, 135
researcher analysis bootstrapping in, 215
writers hired to improve the clarity of, 394
domain(s), 21, 88
brain control architecture as single, 657
building representations of, 209
change and mechanism perfection, 784
communities of practice and tacit knowledge, 623
comparing one domain’s experts against another’s, 295
conducting studies across a greater range of, 299
control areas, 656
control network as, 660
creative, 330
creativity and expertise redefinition of, 783–785
of expertise, 618, 761
expertise and, 785
expertise in real world, 170
expert-performance approach application to, 233–235
experts across, 305
formal, 21
heuristics of exceptional experts, 22
informal, 21
innovation and borders of, 783
knowledge of, 100
network, 659
observation systematically organized by, 138
reasoning abilities, 23
redefinition and domain-specific expertise, 784
redefinition by Wright Brothers, 784
refinement and, 784
relationship to expertise, 785
as structured, 569
tacit knowledge, 627
domain experts
academic rigor and, 82
Concept Maps agreement and, 211
designing instruction, 81
expert systems construction by, 204
as informants, 189
long-term memory use by, 394
propositions elicited from, 211
as a task information source, 81
teaching control over, 76
domain independent
cognitive mechanisms, 365
spatial working memory skill, 365
domain practitioners, systematic study of proficient, 203
domain redefinition, Calder and, 784
domain specialization of medieval university instructors, 73
domain specificity
of expertise, 49, 405, 412
expertise as widening, 765
expertise generality and, 763–764
prototype view of expertise and, 614
in situation awareness, 640
of situationally important information, 637
training and practice requirements of, 748
of writing expertise, 393
domain-general cognition, specific domain training and practice, 735
domain-limited expertise, 24
domain-novice analogies, lacking appropriate domain knowledge, 167
domain-specific experience
attaining reproducibly superior performance, 688–690
importance of, 478
domain-specific expertise
Calder and, 773
domain redefinition and, 784
domain-specific information and expertise and, 776
in Edison light bulb, 779, 780
identifying the essence of, 231
innovation and, 763
insufficiency for creativity, 782
music composition as, 770
in Picasso’s Gruenica, 772
problem solving and, 764
in visual arts, 775
of Watson and Crick, 775, 776
in Watson and Crick creativity, 782
Wright brother bicycle construction and airplane research, 777
in Wright Brothers flight control development, 55
domain-specific information
actor expertise and, 496
ballet dancers and, 498
processing quickly and efficiently, 475
domain-specific knowledge and skills
acquired as a result of practice, 478
acquisition, 48
development of, 159
expert with greater in-depth, 598
of experts, 178
experts as having acquired more, 23
of history, 581
increasing relevance of for older professionals, 725
individual differences in the amount of time to master, 327
influencing even basic cognitive abilities, 47
jobs predominantly associated with, 157
in military decision making, 410
overriding developmental differences, 532
practical intelligence assessment and, 621
prerequisites for cognitively demanding real-world jobs, 156
in PUFF, 89
representation of, 169
tacit knowledge and general ability, 616
tacit knowledge and intelligence assessments and, 621
task encapuation in procedural representation, 463
tasks intrinsic to, 170
tasks predicting individual differences, 162
of teams, 440
trait complexes as useful predictors of individual differences, 160
domain-specific perceptual tests, 478
domain-specific performance of experts, 10
domain-specific prototype, expertise as, 614
domain-specific representation regions in the brain, 656, 657
domain-specific role models, availability of, 328
domain-specific skills of historians, 573
domain-specific training, 412
domain-specific vocabulary, encoding of knowledge in, 89
domain-specific working memory
computing, 365
measuring, 365
skill, 365
dominant hand, M1 activity typically encoding individual movements in, 674
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), 656, 664
double-helix model as creative thinking in science, 775–776
dramatic art, 489
dramatic situations, actor playing of character real in, 492
dramatic works, tabulating into consecutive age periods, 320
drivers. See also experienced drivers
apprentice driving more poorly, 359
apprentice fixation in hazardous events, 364
atypical experiences and, 368
differing in styles and risk acceptance, 358
experience and performance disconnection and, 359
experience labels for, 356
expert, 355
hazard awareness and training, 648
hazard awareness of expert, 648
hazard reactions and experience, 648
hazard scanning and experience, 648
as poor judges of a process requiring attention or resource management, 361
scan pattern of new, 361
scanning strategies of situations, 362
situation awareness (understanding) of, 364–365
style compared to driver skill, 363
task load and expertise, 363
driving
automaticity and, 639
dynamic environment of, 358
hazard awareness predictive ability in tests, 648
improving skills, 369
safety and tacit knowledge, 623
situation awareness and expertise in, 646–648
drug therapy, 349
du Pre, Jacqueline, 458
dual-task conditions, single-task comparison, 663
dual-task learning, learning of, 661
dual-task methodology, methodology in, 663–665
dual-task performance, 360–361
effects of practice on, 53
not always resulting in brain activity increases, 664
studying using the PRP paradigm, 276
untrained, 665
dual-tasks
with longer, fixed ISI (non-PRP tasks), 666
post-training performance, 59
practice effects on, 665–666
prefrontal activity and, 664
processing and domain concept, 664
processing interference and, 664
single-task experiments and, 664
specific areas of, 664
Duchamp, Marcel, 783
duration
of observational studies, 139
reporting in a time study, 312, 315
of targeted behaviors, 314
dynamic environments
expertise in, 358
freedom from constraints accompanying expertise, 360
game viewpoint task experience, 245
mental models developed in, 366
naturalistic decision making and, 403
perceptual, 173
of transportation, 358
understanding of, 364
dynamic function allocation, 192
dynamic phase space, 57
dynamic systems, representing, 180
dynamical systems theory
to perceptual-motor expertise, 505, 513–516
role in the future understanding of performance in sport, 472
dyscalculia, 563
dyslexics, angular gyrus region in reading, 671
The Early Mental Traits of Three Hundred Geniuses, 321
early start
college choice and, 298
importance of, 298–299
value of, 298
EasyBowling (virtual bowling game), 248
ecological psychology
learning and performance according to, 480
perceptual-motor expertise and, 505, 513–516
research perspective of, 268
role in the future understanding of performance in sport, 472
ecological representation
increasing for an action component, 245
increasing with respect to the action component, 258
ecological validity, perception/decision task and performance, 482
economic capital, 118
economic elites, pacts with bureaucratic, 120
economics, time use literature on, 305
Edison, Thomas A.
creative thinking in light bulb development, 779–780
domain redefinition and, 784
inventiveness of, 782
non-domain expertise and, 782
single-case designs applied to, 325
editing
complexity of, 390
dissociating the author from, 393
education
advanced requirements for, 298
after the Industrial Revolution, 70
in ancient times, 70
attention, 480
becoming a science, 76–77
characteristics of, 46
early philosophies of, 70
elite status and, 757
evolution and expertise studies, 45
of expertise as a phenomenon, 83–84
formal, 327
genius and exceptional talent and, 327
history of, 46
inner state of, 71
investment return in expertise, 748
mathematical expertise and, 562
medieval, 72
modernization and, 75–76
prior to the Industrial Revolution, 75
study of expertise in, 14
Education of a Wandering Man, 397
educational institutions, children having equal access to, 119
educational psychology, discipline of, 76
educational theory and practice
in chess training, 532
industry mass-production techniques, 75
instructor as expert in, 70
of ISD, 81
of medieval European educators, 70
research on deficiencies of past, 83
under the sway of behaviorism, 45
education-occupation research, 588
Edwards, Ward, 424
effective scaffolds, knowledge elicitation procedures as, 216
efficacy
collective competence and, 444
expert teams, 444
process decomposition and, 427
self-diagnoses in team, 448
team member collective, 448
efficiency
decision mode cardinal issues and, 430
as expert social function, 748
of knowledge elicitation methods, 214
eidetic memory, 225
Elaborated level of expertise, 344
elderly. See aging
electric power utilities, 217
electrocardiograms (ECG), 234, 345
electronic warfare technicians, 364, 408–409
electronics experts, 51
element-level SRC effects, 271
eliciting, expert knowledge, 213, 217
elicitors, skill of, 216, 218
elite(s)
achievement as expertise, 12–13
circulation of, 119
current definitions of, 117
experts and, 106
issue of control or comparison groups for, 294–295
power of, 118
self-purification by, 119
social background of, 757
talented non-elite member admission, 119
elite performance
formal equivalent of for medicine, 339
improving beyond the age of physical maturation, 688
non-transferability of, 47
elite performers
longitudinal studies of, 693
skater ice time use, 308
soccer player deliberate practice, 693
elite positions
higher selectivity in the staffing of, 119
historic mechanisms of transferring from one generation to the next, 118
mechanisms of reproduction, 118
elite science, Zuckerman’s primary focus on the world of, 291
Elliot, T. S., 399
Elo rating scale of chess tournament performance, 524
emergency management teams, coordination and cooperation in, 449
emic categories, 139
eminence
individual attainment and, 323
of participants, 322, 323
teachers and mentors status and, 324
eminent individuals
achiever examination, 331
analyzed in many domains in Great Britain, 10
family pedigrees of, 321
offspring as, 555
personalities of, 320
emotions
actor double consciousness of, 494
actor generation of situation and task specific, 494–495
on actor intentional generation of, 495
actor involvement of, 491
of actors in dramatic roles, 495
in actor’s paradox, 494
brain processing of, 656
in writing, 395–396
empirical psychology, 82
Empirical Studies of Programmers, 374
employees
managerial excellence and organizational fit, 754
as professionals, 112
encoding
of dancers, 499
knowledge acquisition and selection, 624
in knowledge acquisition experiment, 625, 626
for memory enhancement, 497
memory skills and, 547
in superior memory, 547
verbal and enactive, 497
Encyclopedia of Chess Openings, 524
Le Encyclopedie, 203
Encyclopedie ou dictionnare de rainsonne des sciences..., 6
end-game positions, 602
endoscopic procedure, 254
engineered systems, diagnosis of surpassing medical diagnosis, 94
engineering
dearth of American students in, 36
mechanical, 773
practice principles, 193
engineers, aerospace, 35
enthymeme, 573
environment. See also dynamic environments; home environment
cues in social judgment, 628
expertise and, 562
external, 511, 514
information processing and contextual, 615
learning and cognitive traits, 604
optimal, 562
seeking data from, 58
selected by writers, 396
self-regulation and, 706
self-regulation in, 706
situation assessment of, 442
situation awareness and, 634
in situation awareness model, 635
social context and opportunities, 289
structuring of, 711
for study, 711
environmental expertise, demand for, 120
environmental factors
aviation student pilot situation awareness errors and, 642
musical performance role of, 458
episodes, 309
aggregating identical or similar, 309
capturing in a stylized activity log, 309
evaluation of, 311
generating in SEARCH, 530
as the unit of analysis in a time diary, 311
episodic information, semantic memory and, 539
episodic memory, 544
expertise in, 539
recall of, 540
epistemology
CYC KB construction, 99
expert systems and, 91
gender and, 117
scientists claims and, 115
equal-odds rule, 330, 771–772
ergonomics, 188, 191, 208
Ericsson, K. Anders, 83
errors, 448. See also blunders; bugs; faults; mistakes
in attribution of expertise, 750
by aviation pilots, 641–642
causal attribution of, 712, 714, 716
correction and expertise development, 705
decision implementation and, 435
in expert decision making, 433
expert team and, 448
medical under close scrutiny, 255
novice situation awareness and, 637
in novice situation interpretation, 637
primed by prior problems, 280
in situation awareness and comprehension, 634
in situation awareness and perception, 634
essayists, interviews with professional, 391
ethics, family subculture maintenance of, 756
ethnic group, expertise development role of, 756
ethnographic approach to expertise, 116–117
ethnographic research
on management team effectiveness, 448
methods of, 131, 208
observation in, 131
practice in, 141–142
revealing heuristic strategies of experts, 205
ethnography, 128
analytic orientations in, 131
expertise studies and, 208–213
information triangulating, 136
MER teams issues in, 132
problematic aspects of, 141
stakeholders identification, 136
systematic investigation, 138
technological design and, 138
ethnomethodology, 128
analytic perspective of, 133–134
emphasizing common-sense knowledge and practices, 133
example of, 131
relation to technological design, 138
shifting focus to how people succeed, 133
etic categories, 139
evaluation
of decisions, 422
of expert systems, 98
of expertise in history, 570
of historical sources, 572
events
abstraction of invariances of discriminating cues, 55
antecedent conditions enabling, 580
contingency mediation by law, 571
experts anticipating future, 246
human activity as causing, 570
interpreting in terms of present conditions, 576
ISDV movement instruction and, 81
model of, 572
particular as units of analysis, 323
producing particular consequences, 574
recording, 314
representation of, 572
situation projection of, 636
variability in, 54
Evert, Chris, 710
everyday activities
age-related cognitive changes and, 732
expertise in, 614
initial proficiency in, 685
performing at a functional level, 684
reaching a satisfactory level that is stable and autonomous, 685
everyday expertise
practical intellectual abilities in, 613
practical intelligence and tacit knowledge in, 621
everyday problem solving, Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test and, 618
everyday skills
elderly adult problem solving, 732
expertise vs., 59
learning mechanisms extended, 11, 26
not sufficient for the development of expertise, 60
stages of, 694
evidence
confirming and disconfirming, 295
consultant expertise and, 426
as criterion in history, 571
of decision making success, 427
for innate abilities, 458
strength assessment methods, 96
evolution
cognitive acts as, 497
creative thinking and, 771
excellence
devotion to, 613
heritability of, 458
school talent selection and norms transmission, 756
exceptional achievement
developmental antecedents of, 326
examining across the entire life, 322
historiometric inquiries into the role of genetics in, 321
precursors of, 724
exceptional experts, identification of, 21
exceptional individuals
basis of choosing, 21
creators and political anarchy, 328
encouraged and supported in considerable learning, 289
not showing unusual promise at the start, 288
exceptional mathematical abilities, early reviews of, 554
exceptional memory, 539–550
for arbitrary information requiring sustained attention, 237
deliberate practice and, 693
as either specific or general, 544
as general or specific, 544–545
identifying the mediating encoding and retrieval mechanisms of, 236
for numbers, 236
restricted to one type of material, 560
study of, 540
tracing from average performance to the best memory performance, 236
exclusion process of women from scientific expertise, 117
executive control system of working memory, 661
executives
risk and managerial expertise of, 434
tacit knowledge-practical intelligence research and, 628
exemplar theory, 344
knowledge in, 346, 347
processing in, 349
exhaustivity. See completeness
ExpCS (expertise cognitive speed), 603
ExpDR (expertise deductive reasoning)
abilities as distinct from Gf, SAR, and Gs, 603
characteristic of the intelligence of adults, 605
measures of the ability traits of, 603
in particular domains, 604
reliable age-by-expertise interaction for, 604
expectations
individual, 326
perceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 509, 511–512
in situation awareness, 636
experience
actors on-stage affective, 494
affecting driver psychology, 359
affective, 494
age and heightened levels of, 723
age in dual-task performance and, 360
age-related declines in knowledge-rich domains and, 726
aviation pilot training and levels, 641–642
bicycle control and, 777
codifying expertise gained through, 96
compared to deliberate practice, 699
compiling of, 412
context interchange with information processing capability, 615
cost of, 349
decision accuracy and, 434
domain-related performance improvement and, 306
of drivers, 355
of emotional states and outward expression, 493
expert truth presumption and, 750
expertise acquisition and, 623
expertise and, 96
expertise as consequence of lengthy, 686
expertise as everyday skill and, 11
expertise development and, 60
expertise mastery and, 60
expertise operationalized as, 375
expert-novice differences influence of, 482
general aviation pilots and situation awareness, 643
improvement and, 683
improvements not automatic consequence of, 14
information gathering skills and, 646
information skills acquisition with, 640
knowledge-acquisition and, 616
in medicine, 349
in military decision making, 410, 411
performance effects of, 683
performance improvement and, 688
as a personnel selection predictor, 384
planning strategy moderation and, 368
Pollock’s technique and, 775
as a prerequisite to human expertise, 96
qualitatively different, 297
situation awareness information transformation and, 645–646
situation awareness mechanism and, 637
tacit knowledge and, 615, 617
tacit knowledge enhancement, 623
in time-pressured, high-stakes decision making, 406
in transportation, 358–359
use in problem solving, 345
use of experts specific, 406, 758
weak performance and representation, 358, 639
in Wright Brothers flight control development, 779
experience-based learning, thought role in, 626
experienced drivers
distance judgment, 362
in hazardous conditions, 365
reaction to hazards, 363
shifting cognitive load, 360
threat-related knowledge, 364
experienced physicians. See physicians
experienced pilots, prioritization by, 644
experienced programmers. See programmers
experienced software designers. See software designers
experimental groups, superior performance of, 257
experimental tasks, ecological representativeness of, 246
experimentation, domains permitting the use of, 569
expert(s), 22. See also apologist experts; domain experts; medical experts; subject matter experts
accomplishments by older, 723
accountability and, 753
adaptivity of, 713
as agents, 136
as already-acknowledged, 426
American, 294
behaviorally-relevant objects processed by, 658
categorizing at the subordinate level, 176
circumstances of acting as, 745
cognitive differences from novices, 44
definition of, 3, 706, 743
democratic control of, 119
differentiating from novices, 168, 342, 373
distinguished from laypersons, 105
duties of, 743
establishing who is, 471
field monopolization by, 118
flexibility versus rigidity with increased skill, 249
legitimizing use of, 754
meaning of, 762
as more opportunistic than novices, 24
not accepting limited information, 199
novices comparison with, 22
power implications, 106
recalling surface features and overlooking details, 25
relative experts and, 745
role of formal, 752
routine tactics of, 405
separating from non-experts, 106
shifting and knowledge domains status, 746
situation monitoring by, 52
social-personality development of, 33–34, 36
sociological view of, 105
typology of, 745–752, 753
unexceptional performance by, 686
varieties of, 758
ways in which they do not excel, 24–27
ways in which they excel, 23–24
work of, 744
working at becoming, 31
expert class of objects, processing faces as members of, 668
expert cognition as the goal state for education, 45
expert generalist, expertise studies and, 46
expert knowledge, 598–599. See also knowledge
capturing prior to the retirement of experts, 217
created and maintained through collaborative and social processes, 206
creating a model of, 24
dimensions of, 95
eliciting, 213
entering directly into a computer as responses to questions, 204
expert function interpretation and, 747
facilitating the elicitation and preservation of, 218
information-processing and, 614
living repositories of, 213
multiple forms of, 346
professionals using to deal with uncertainty, 108
as tacit, 412
expert mechanisms, age-related decline compensation, 730–732
expert memory, 599–600
as long term retention, 463
expert model
intelligent tutoring systems use, 46
training blueprint, 252
expert panels, 755
expert performance, 4. See also performance
acquired gradually, 692
acquisition of the necessary competence, 323
age and experience and, 688
applying to a wide range of domains, 233–235
assessment of at the level of individuals, 323
cognitive mechanisms and, 728
compensatory strategies in, 731
concept of intelligence and, 736
contexts of, 687
criteria, 745–746
deliberate practice, 602
deliberate practice requirement, 266
domain task constraint adaptation, 463
effortful practice requirements and, 61
examining people with exceptional memory, 236
experience as related to, 383
to expertise, 49, 231
extended preparation and, 613
as a function of age, 689
generalized theory of, 471
historiometrics findings, 329
human possibility and, 17
laboratory tasks design and, 471
medieval craftsmen and, 75
not easily captured, 61
practice and, 297, 458, 561
predicting non-practice specific factors, 481
prediction of, 150–154
primary unit of analysis in the examination of, 311
reasoning associated with, 599
representative task superiority and, 13–14
reproducible structure mediating, 236
research and development of, 613
research investigating, 83
resources limits and novice performance, 360
rewards for, 35
schematic illustration of, 695
in simulated sports tasks, 245–248
situation awareness and, 649
skill acquisition as an extended series of gradual changes, 694
social context of, 743
social function in, 743
in sport, 471–483
stages in examining, 471
tasks capturing, 244
theoretical accounts of in older age, 726–727
theoretical framework for the acquisition of, 306
time use and, 305–308
tracing across time, 324
work settings promotion of, 383–384
expert performers. See also performers
attaining lower levels of achievement, 17
automaticity avoidance, 685, 694
characteristics study, 305
deliberate practice by, 12
design constraint integration, 382
development paths of, 60
differences between, 153
eye movements of, 471
knowledge and acquired skills of, 235
performance asymptote avoidance, 694
performance improvement by, 694
practice without rest by, 699
primary as advanced level teachers, 9
psychological and physiological constraints on, 61
reported thoughts differences of, 235
specialized techniques employed by, 83
expert reasoning, 599
as inferential and deductive, 599
proceeding from the general to the specific, 599
expert role
assignment as social validation, 750
assignment in groups, 750
as attribution, 743
as interactions, 743
professionalism and, 744–753
relative experts and, 744–753
social form and, 751
typological types and professional work, 751–752
expert superiority, postural cues and lying in, 257
expert systems, 87, 88
abilities of, 88
applications of, 93–95
in artificial intelligence, 48
benefits of, 94
brief history of, 89–91
building blocks of, 91–93
classes of, 94–95
development of, 88
emergence of focus on in AI research, 90–91
era of, 204
evaluation of, 98
expert knowledge required by, 191
expertise preserved by using, 94
expertise research and, 405
explanation by, 97–98
industry, 43
issues arising from, 95–98
issues in, 95
knowledge and, 100
knowledge sharing by, 99
as models of human expertise, 93
parts of, 91
pioneers in the development of, 14
questions addressed by work on, 88
questions defining, 88
research on, 95
science as, 106
ways of building, 93
expert teams
adaptive abilities of, 441
collective trust, 448
cooperation and coordination by, 449
decision making abilities of, 441
definition, 440
feedback cycles, 446–448
field observation studies on, 444–445
leadership and, 443–444
leadership of, 448
in organizations, 440
outcome management, 448
performance, 439–446
performance characteristics, 446–449
performance effective processes and outcomes, 447
research on, 440–444
resource optimization by, 446
roles and responsibilities, 448
routine problem solving expertise of, 440
self report method use,
as set of experts, 439
shared cognition in, 443
shared leadership in, 443
shared mental models and, 446
shared visions of, 448
social interaction expertise in, 441
stress conditions and, 443
theory of, 441
work allocation in, 449
expert value as return on education investment, 748
expert versus novice performance in a specific domain, 471
expert-driven projects, disadvantage of, 120
expert-expert differences in performance by historians, 573
expert-in-context as unit of analysis, 743
expert-interaction, 747
attribution theory and, 750
constituents of, 746–747
expert-lay dichotomy and,
model social usefulness, 748
as social form, 744
social mechanisms of, 749–751
truth and fact-checking in, 751
value as truth, 750
expertise. See also domain-specific expertise; everyday expertise; medical expertise; memory expertise; musical expertise; subject matter expertise
acquired nature of, 61
adaptive, 377, 383
ascertaining the nature of, 170
attribution and audience, 747
belief basis of, 425
characterization of, 9, 10–14, 46–60, 293, 569
classic types of, 745
as co-construction between individuals and domains, 291
codified to solve complex problems, 88
co-incidence or co-construction of, 299
conceptions of, 4
as continuum of states, knowledge, and skills, 781
creative, 320
definition of, 3, 167, 206, 706
development of, 292, 383, 600–602, 705–719
dispersed level of, 344
as domain-limited, 24
domain-specific vs. general, 763–764
enhancement, 623, 627
in everyday life, 614
execution of, 414
first appearance of as a topic, 287
as a general set of inner ethical and knowledge-based traits, 71
general theory of, 9
historical overview of, 569–570
knowledge and content matter in, 47–49
knowledge, skills, and heuristics in, 217
limited scope of, 47
meaning of, 762
measurement of differential, 321
modes of, 764
modes of transfer, 765
motor, 672
operating at the level of being able to perform the movement, 672
path to as not fully monotonic, 601
postulates amplifying the functional importance of, 119
psychological definition of, 614
as social construction, 426
studies of the long-term development of, 299
study and development of, 70
study approaches to, 21
study themes, 31
ten years of training and practice to attain world-class, 327
theory derivation and, 588
theory of, 588, 598–602
tradeoffs and, 434
transition toward, 412
in transportation, 368
types of, 33, 36, 377, 598
valuation of, 748
viewing as an orderly progression from novice to intermediate and to expert, 686
weaknesses and strengths of methods for studying, 296
expertise abilities
age and patterns of, 603
age and skill rating in playing GO, 604
age increases and patterns of, 602
Gf-Gc theory, 602–604
intellectual capacities and, 602
of intelligence, 604
expertise acquisition. See also acquisition
accelerated, 329
developmental correlates, 331
empirical findings of historiometrics, 326–329
historiometric investigation contributing to scientific understanding of, 328
individual differences in expert performance, 328
expertise cognitive speed. See ExpCS
expertise deductive reasoning. See ExpDR
expertise research. See also research
in history, 580
systematic observation in, 313–316
using simulated task environments, 245–252
expertise studies
common patterns of findings, 297–299
development of, 41–46
development of natural observation in, 130–131
field of, 44
framing of, 138
as a large and active field, 46
from psychological perspectives, 62
in psychology, 204–205
expertise working memory. See ExpWM
expertise-driver specific abilities account, 727
expertise-related mechanisms, 730
expert-lay dichotomy
expert-interaction and, 747
knowledge gradient and,
as relational notion, 746
expert-novice differences
in dance, 499
features of expert-interaction in, 746
leading directly to new methods of instruction, 46
musician tonality recall and, 463
experts. See also memory experts; older experts
explanations
coding methods for, 177
compared to thinking aloud, 228
expert experience use in, 758
by expert systems, 97–98
insuficiency, 204
of the line of reasoning, 93
verbal reporting as, 176
explicit awareness, sequential learning not dependent on, 274
explicit concrete entities, novices solving a problem on the basis of, 181
explicit-instruction training groups, contrasted, 257
exponential law of practice, 267
expository writing, 574, 575
expression in dance, 500
ExpWM (expertise working memory), 600, 604
abilities as distinct from Gf, SAR, and Gs, 603
abilities indicated in displays of expertise, 605
as different from STWM and memories of SAR, 600
indicative of intelligence, 605
level-of-expertise-by-age interaction for, 604
measures of the ability traits of, 603
reliable age-by-expertise interaction for, 604
extended Gf-Gc theory. See Gf-Gc theory
extended practice. See also deliberate practice
leading to improvements in performance, 31
PRP effect persisting across, 277
refining and improving rules as a function of, 479
extended training, 61
extensive experience
of activities in a domain, 683
necessary to attain superior expert performance, 687
extensive watching, not the same as extensive playing, 691
external demands, performing in response to, 687
external supports, elimination of, 706
external variables in Carroll’s system, 79
extreme base rates, problem of, 154
extrinsic rewards, writer’s creativity and, 395
extroversion, decision vigilance and, 429
Extroversion personality trait in the Social Trait complex, 159
eye fixations
measured by Chase and Simon, 526
recording and analyzing, 233
sequences of, 229
eye movements
of chess experts, 525–526
data indicating expert search strategies, 246
developments in the recording and analyses of, 471
of experienced vs. inexperienced drivers, 362
by flight instructors versus student pilots, 250
of music instrumentalists, 465
recording in an action component, 246
recording techniques and occlusion studies, 476
search patterns of skilled performers, 476
simulated by CHREST, 527
of surgeons’ laparoscopic simulation, 251
vs. external environment, 511
eye-hand spans of older skilled typists, 731
face inversion, prosopagnosia patients not impaired in, 668
face-like expertise, developing for a non-face object category, 676
faces
inverted activating object-sensitive regions, 668
processing, 667–668
same race, 668
tests for, 545
treated like objects by object processing regions, 668
working-memory task, 662
facial expression, emotional experience and, 493
facilitative trait complexes, 159
factor analysis, 589
factor analytic studies, 589
failures
attention in perceptual-motor expertise and, 513
essential to the development of expert levels of skill, 45
of experts, 23, 56
likely to arise in deliberate practice, 698
viewing as opportunities to improve, 601
false associates, activating by way of other problems, 280
families
of Calder as artistic, 774
expertise socialization and, 756
of German musicians, 756
mental development and bourgeois, 756
music societal factors and, 466
musical abilities and, 457–458
as subcultures for expertise, 756
support by, 13
family background, world-class expertise emerging from, 327
family circumstances, influencing the acquisition of extraordinary expertise, 327
family influences, providing early experiences and motivating learning, 298
fast learning phase of M1, 671
Faulkner, William, 713
faults. See also errors
considering possible, 193
detecting in writing, 390
diagnosing, 94
feather, sharpening for writing with ink, 6
features, identifying, 268
feedback
in adaptive expert teams, 442
in decision skills training, 412
in deliberate practice for writers, 396
in expert teams, 446–448
expertise development and, 705
in the ISD process, 81
for motor control, 273
perceptual-motor skill learning and, 506, 508
required for deliberate practice, 601
responding to, 511–512
situation analysis information development and, 636
vital role of, 45
to writers from composition instructors, 397
feelings
actor active experiencing of character, 493
actors on-stage and character, 495
as decision making mode, 430
intense negative in writers, 396
Feigenbaum, Edward, 12, 204
Feltovich, Paul, 12
females, brain and mathematical expertise, 563
FFA (Fusiform Face Area), 667
activating differently based on experience with different types of faces, 668
activation greater for faces, 667
greater activation for same-race faces, 668
not responsive to face parts, 668
response to items learned at high levels of expertise, 667
response to non-face objects, 667
Fialkowska, Janina, 711
fiberoptic bronchoscopy, 254
fiction writers, 393
fields
analysis of, 138
focusing on the underlying principles and processes of, 297
newly emerging requiring different processes, 298
fieldwork, 128
examination, 243
with expert practitioners, 208
notes, 140
observational studies, 444–445
fighter pilots, 365
figural abilities assessment, 618
figure skaters. See also skaters
elite spending more time on challenging jumps, 601
practice activities of, 306
rating practice activities for, 307
film and video technology, creating improved simulations, 256
film directors. See movie directors
film strip, creating, 140
film-based simulation, 255
films. See also motion pictures; movie directors
directed as an acquisition indicator, 324
for each director evaluated, 330
financial auditors, tacit knowledge and, 622
financial business advisors, compensation closely tied to success, 35
financial decision making class of expert systems, 94
findings, physical observations interpreted in terms of, 179
fine-motor control, systematic age-related declines, 726
fingers. See also manual dexterity
bilateral oscillation, 516
defining movement for a particular brain region, 677
flexibility of, 696
M1 thumb opposition response, 671
movement in calculation, 563
movement in older adults, 733
music brain processing and, 464
opposition paradigm, 663
opposition sequence performance, 662
rapid movement of, 729
tapping rate, 727
Finkelstein, Salo, 554, 559
fire fighters, 52
fireground commanders, 407
Fischer, Bobby, 689
fishermen, 175
fixations
experts extracting more information from one, 476
of eye movements by chess players, 525
longer by apprentice drivers, 362
Flanagan, 188–189
flight crews, 445
flight elements, rating the priority of, 368
flight instructors, 249. See also pilots
flight simulation
assessing the effectiveness of, 253
development of and application to training, 252–254
dynamic examining pilots’ ability to adapt to changing constraints, 249
training efficiency of, 253
flow states
of consciousness in writing, 395
positive affect of, 395
flowcharts, data collected in, 141
fluency of retrieval from long-term storage. See TSR
fluid intellectual abilities, individual investments of, 159
fluid intelligence. See Gf
fluid reasoning. See Gf
Fly! software, 250
flying
expert and novice pilots’ action consequences anticipation, 248
positive expertise effects on, 733
situation responsiveness and constraints, 249
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 654. See also MRI
right posterior hippocampus (RPH) activation in taxi drivers, 673
studies of brain activity in abacus experts, 549
studies of shifts, 53
threshold selection causing an area to appear active, 663
focal dystonia, 466
forecast skill scores,
forensic analysts, 199
forethought
goal shifting and, 717, 718
motivational beliefs and, 707, 708
self-regulation and, 706, 710, 713
strategy selection and, 714
formal and public knowledge versus informal and private, 96
formal assessment in the 20th century, 70
formal domains, 21
formal experts, 752
formal instruction
in dance, 498
small amount of time on, 289
formal vs. informal knowledge, 95
formal-empiricist paradigm of decision making, 404
forthcoming action sequences
planning for, 509, 511
prediction of, 511–512
forward chaining, 92
forward reasoning
experts greater use of, 342
as a methodological artifact, 346
forward span STWM, limit for, 600
forward-backward search patterns, 177
forward-span memory, negative age relationship for, 593
forward-working search strategy
expert’s representation characterized as, 169
used by the physics expert, 177
frame. See structured object
frame theory, 178
frameworks, 134–136
Franklin, Benjamin, 397
Frasca 142 flight simulator, 364
fraud detection, 235
free recall, 171
Freud, Sigmund, 615
fronto-parietal networks
supporting performance of routine numerical tasks, 675
use in numerical tasks, 563
frustration, skill demands and, 395
Fuller, Thomas, 557, 561
functional fixedness, 27
functional hierarchical representation, 195
functional magnetic resonance imaging. See fMRI
functional organization in brain activation, 653
functional reorganization
of brain areas, 655
versus process efficiency, 662
functional validity of behaviors, 313
functions
behavioral trait fluctuations in, 588
behaviorally valid, 313
expert performance as, 743
expertise as knowledge of, 747
named in a production rule, 92
fusiform cortex, 656
Fusiform Face Area. See FFA
future events
experts ability to anticipate, 246
projection as situation awareness level, 634
g (general intelligence), 32, 591
characterization, 616
discovery and measurement of, 591
as a factor at early stages of skill acquisition, 725
heritability for, 724
as missing, 591
practical intelligence and, 616, 620
tacit knowledge and, 621
Ga (auditory processing), 590
Gagne, 80
Galton, Sir Francis
attempts to measure a generalized, inheritable intelligent quotient, 71
criteria of eminence, 553
first behavioral scientist to publish a truly influential historiometric study, 320
hypothesis of a general superiority for experts, 10
on inherited abilities, 556
innate biological capacities limiting an individual’s potential, 684
innovation setting the groundwork for empirical studies of thinking, 224
on natural ability and mathematical expertise, 555
precursors of exceptional achievements, 724
games
chunking of arrays in, 171
presenting situations to chess players, 232
scenarios and recall, 478
time constraints in, 473
Gamm, Rüdiger
active brain areas, 560
brain activity of, 564
brain of, 675
brain regions used by, 565
calculating prodigy, 557
learning to use LTWM facility, 559
memory specificity, 560
neural network for calculation processes, 564
on practice, 561
practice and, 561
as self-taught, 560
study of, 554
visual processing computation and, 559
gatekeepers, 745
Gates, Bill, 14
Gauss, Carl Fredrich, 554
gaze-contingent paradigm for chess player perception, 525
Gc abilities
in the Intellectual/Cultural trait complex, 159
no decline or improvement of with aging, 593
Gc (acculturation knowledge), 590
abilities increasing with acculturation, 605
correlating with the educational or economic level, 592
development of associated abilities, 592
as dilettant breadth of knowledge of the culture, 604
improvements for some individuals with age much larger than for others, 595
increasing in adulthood, 595
indicating dilettante breadth of knowledge, 605
measures of, 597
operational definition not adequate, 597
security conducive to the development of, 592
Gc (crystallized intelligence), 32, 161
characterization of, 617
components within a person, 32
correlating with Gf, 32
domain general tacit knowledge inventories and, 621
instruments for measuring, 32
practical intelligence and, 616, 621
tacit knowledge and, 621
gender
accounting for performance differences in sprint events, 481
scientific expertise perspective of, 117
in self-regulatory training, 715–716, 717, 718
general ability, importance of, 616
general expertise
creativity in Edison and Wright Brothers, 780
as mechanical in Wright Brothers, 770
in Wright Brothers flight control development, 779
general intelligence. See g
General Problem Solver, 11, 42, 90
general systems theory in military problems, 77
generalists, 46
generalized reasoning ability. See Gf
generate and test weak method, 43
genetic endowment, relevance of, 327
genetic inheritance, as a relevant component for expertise in music and sports, 22
Genetic Studies of Genius, 321
genetics
forward-backward search patterns with experts and novices, 177
mathematical problem solving and, 562–563
musical talent and, 458
genius, not randomly distributed across space and time, 327
geographical locations
genius and talent clustering in, 327
information on, 312
geography, aviation student pilot situation awareness errors and, 642
geology, practice of changing during the MER mission, 134
geometry, required to design new church buildings, 72
Geometry Theorem Proving Program, 90
German Democratic Republic, 756, 757
Germany, 755, 756
gerontology, time use literature on, 305
Gf abilities, aging decline of, 593
Gf (fluid intelligence), 32, 161
correlating with Gc, 32
domain general tacit knowledge inventories and, 621
instruments for measuring, 32
practical intelligence and, 616
as a predictor of performance, 549
substantial correlations with measures of working memory, 32
tests of, 32
Gf (fluid reasoning), 590
age-related declines in, 593
declining during adulthood, 594–595
development of abilities, 592
evidence for decline cleanest for novel or equally familiar reasoning, 594
as much the same as Spearman’s g, 591
negatively related to skill rating in GO, 604
not representing a concept of general intelligence, 592
parting the Gs measure out of, 594
reasoning as inductive, 599
social class and, 592
tests defining, 591
g-factor, 724
Gf-by-age interaction, positive for GO, 604
Gf-Gc theory, 588–598
descriptive concepts of, 590
not measuring capabilities best characterizing the intelligence of adult humans, 597
problems and limitations of, 596–598
relation with expertise abilities, 602–604
tests typically used in the research on, 597
gifted, career choices of, 34
gifted students
longitudinal studies of, 34
making use of advanced placement courses, 34
giftedness, Mozart and, 769
Gilbreth, Frank, 187
girls, music societal factors and, 466
Glaser, Robert, 12, 45
Glenberg, Art, 497
gliders
Chanute glider control research, 777
research of Lilienthal, 776
Glm. See long-term memory
GO
age-comparative studies, 728
establishing official levels of expertise, 606
expertise as very complex in, 603
expertise in playing the game of, 603–604
objective of, 171
GO experts
asking to draw circles showing related stones, 173
partitioning patterns as overlapping sub-patterns, 173
GO players
asking to recall briefly presented patterns, 171
memory for brief displays for expert, 47
poor performance on Gomoko displays, 47
goal orientation as motivational belief, 709
goal processing in the brain, 656
goal setting
choice of strategy, 714
self-regulatory process of, 708
in self-regulatory training, 718
goal shifting, 716
forethought and, 717, 718
self-satisfaction and, 717
goal-directed production, creativity and, 761
goal-direction, actor script segmentation in actor preparation, 492
goal-driven processing
in situation analysis, 636
in situation awareness, 636
goals. See also outcome goals
abstract, 378
decomposing, 375
design, 375, 376
learning, 709
naturalistic decision making and, 403
need for clear, 45
outcome, 708, 716
performance evaluation and, 716
personal, 705
process, 708, 716
relating to long-term social-organization objectives, 136
setting beyond one’s current level of performance, 601
team and individual discrepancies in, 442
unpacking to reveal a nested hierarchy of goals and subgoals, 189
Gobet, F., 529
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 710
golf
compared to chess, 697
control processes underlying skilled performance in, 479
interactions of skill-level with attentional focus in putting, 479
situation awareness expertise in, 634
golfers
causal attribution of errors by, 712
perceptual-motor expertise in, 513
Gomoku, objective of, 171
Gomoku players
asking to recall briefly presented patterns, 171
memory for brief displays for expert, 47
poor performance on GO displays, 47
GOMS model, 191
goose feather. See feather
Gould, Stephen Jay, 394
gourmet critics, 746
Goya, Francisco de, 772
Gq (quantitative knowledge), 590, 605
grades in medical school failing to correlate with surgical ability, 348
graduate school
discipline-related expertise development at, 575
historians expertise characteristics emerging in, 581
Graham, Martha, 497
grammar
actor memorization units, 491
as a reader prompt, 392
grammatical usage advisor, expert system acting as, 95
graphemic representations, 390
graphic designers, negative age effects, 733
The Great Mental Calculators: The Psychology, Methods, and Lives of the Calculating Prodigies, 554
greatness, arising from chance and unique innate talent, 22
Greece, acting history and, 489
Gretzky, Wayne, 633
Griffiths, Arthur, 561
group Rorschach, administered to scientists by Roe, 294
groups
behavior of experts in, 750
expert area differentiation and, 753
expert assignment and unshared information, 750
preference for studies of, 293
Gs (processing speed), 590
of adult-age differences in cognition, 726
age-related declines in, 593
declining during adulthood, 593–594
ExpCS tests like those measuring, 603
measure parting out of the Gf measure, 594
older pianists slower, 602
parting out of the Gf-slow-tracing residual, 595
requiring focused concentration, 595
guided-discovery training groups, 257
guilds
administering tests to assess level of performance, 5
formed by craftsmen, 5
guarding knowledge and monopoly of production, 6
Gv. See visual processing
Halifax study, 304
Handbook of methods in cultural anthropology, 137
handicaps of experts, 24
handwriting
heavy demands made on working memory by, 398
mastering the mechanics of, 398
hardware features of sport, 478
Hayden, Franz Joseph, 770
hazard detection
by drivers, 363–364
explicit training, 369
gathering and interpreting cues from the environment, 363
speed of as a factor in driver performance, 363
hazard perception
interference on, 363
as not automatic but controlled, effortful, 363
hazards
driver scanning and experience, 648
driving performance predictive ability and, 648
HCI (human-computer interaction), research in, 131
hearing loss, musicians and, 465
hedonic forecasting, decision research in, 433
Heider, Fritz, 751
help seeking, 711
Hemingway, Ernest, 712
Hereditary Genius, 684
Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences, 320, 553
heritability, 118
determining the upper bound for performance, 684
increasingly inappropriate in elites, 118
level of performance and, 10
limiting the role of to motivational factors, 480
heritability estimates
in behavioral genetics, 737
smaller in twins undergoing systematic musical training, 725
for specific capacities, 724
heritable characteristics, intellectual abilities and, 555
Heritable Genius, 10
Herodotus, 570, 571
heuristics
decision making and, 405
expert strategies as, 205
in an expert system knowledge base, 91
of experts, 215
experts use by, 758
historians use by, 572
in historical source analysis, 572
humans use to manage search in chess, 528
SEARCH use by, 530
searching chess moves, 525
Hewlett-Packard, 624
hierarchical attention network, determining optimal level of processing, 667
hierarchical model, 330
assessing the performance of film directors, 325–326
of intelligence, 32
hierarchical organization, characterizing expert or experienced memory, 54
hierarchical regression, power to detect age-differential changes as limited, 728
hierarchical representation
chunking of patterns into, 172
experts and novices differences as, 179
of knowledge, 179
hierarchical structure
memory superiority and, 542
in perceptual-motor control, 510
slipperiness of memory, 180
of the Star Wars game, 179
Hierarchical Task Analysis. See HTA
hierarchies, experts differentiation, 176
high knowledge individuals. See expert(s)
high offices, individual attainment and, 323
high performance, experience as predictor of, 375
high performance levels, self-efficacy and, 383
High School teachers, 35
higher education, adult expertise socialization and, 757
hippocampus, 656, 673
historians
background knowledge of, 573
causal reasoning by, 579–580
causal thinking by, 580
characteristics of expertise, 581
constraint articulation, 578
construction of narratives, 573–574
context and analysis of, 573
counterfactual reasoning use, 579
counterfactual use of, 580
cultural milieu of, 576
domain-related skills, 573
domain-specific knowledge of, 581
expert-expert differences in performance, 573
goal of, 571
graduate school and, 581
heuristics use, 572
inter-related tasks of, 571
knowledge compared to the history buff, 581
major factors of expertise, 581
mental representations of, 572–573
narrative construction of, 573–577
narrative quality by, 574
political belief system and, 580
providing coherence, 574
questions raised by, 573
reasoning and problem solving, 577–580
research skills of, 581
scoring skills of, 580
selecting and defining issues to be studied, 573
solution standards of, 582
source evaluation as expertise, 571–572
specialization of, 573
understanding and explanation by, 581
historic investigator, 69
historical accounts, rules of writing, 571
historical data, applying quantitative and objective techniques, 320
historical developments, identifying in observational studies, 140
historical events
constructing understanding of, 177
interpreting in terms of present conditions, 576
historical individuals, 319, 323
historical narratives. See narratives
historical periods, 327
historical reasoning
ideological belief and, 579
if-then statements and, 579
inferential process and, 577
weak methods used by, 577
historical sources, historian evaluation of, 571–572
historical time, performance increases over, 690–691
historical trends, impacting educator’s views of expertise, 70
historical-political-social thinking, narratives and, 576
historiography, 570
historiometric methods, methods, 331
historiometric research
as correlational rather than experimental, 325
liabilities decreasing, 332
methodological issues entailed in, 322
methods, 319–332
participants in, 331
sample distinctive nature, 322
sample including deceased individuals, 322
single-case studies, 320
ten year rule and, 327
historiometrics, 319
defined as a technique, 321
empirical findings of, 326–331
history of, 320–322
methodological artifacts, 325
methodological issues, 322–326
research designs in, 324–325
sampling procedures, 322
variable definitions in, 323–324
“Historiometry as an Exact Science”, 321
history. See also official histories
of acting as artistic performance, 489–490
as a change of context or scene rather than linear development, 577
contextualization in, 571
of dance, 497–498
definitions of, 570
difficulties of causal analysis in, 579
as a domain of expertise, 570–571
effect on the expected performance of an individual, 326
as an expertise domain with ill-structured problems, 570
expertise in, 569–580, 582
expertise research in, 580
experts in, 569
as ill-structured, 569, 578
learning from, 580
musician achievement demands in, 466
official, 576
as secular, 570
similarity to psychology, 582
sources for learning, 576
study of expertise in, 570
trustworthiness as a source for understanding, 572
unofficial, 576
using heuristics, 572
hockey
players, 513
situation awareness expertise in, 633
teams, 439
Hogan, Ben, 712
Holding, D. H., 528
holistic development, 70, 670
Home Cooling system, 210
home economists, time use studies, 304
home environment. See also environment
musical excellence and, 458
musical skill informal acquisition and, 462
homme moyen (or “average person”), 320
honors, 323
horizontal time referent, 309
Horowitz, Vladimir, 462
hostile targets, higher percentage recalled than friendly, 364
How Working Men Spend Their Time, 304
HTA (Hierarchical Task Analysis), 189–191
as a generic problem-solving process, 191
time intensive compared to other methods, 191
variability in the application of, 191
Hughes, 107
human capital, 118
as division of labor, 748
expertise as, 747–749
as a key competitive difference for companies of the future, 14
Human Characteristics and School Learning, 79
human factors, 188, 358
human factors engineering, cognitive terminology adoption by, 188
human intelligence. See intelligence
Human Patient Simulator, 254
Human Problem Solving, 11
Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO), 77
human-computer interaction. See HCI
human-machine systems
decision making proficiency and, 436
describing the structure of for process control, 209
designing joint, 192
Hunter College Elementary School, 291
hyperlinks, 212
hypothesis-driven (backward chaining) approach, 24
hypotheticals, awareness of, 408
ice hockey. See hockey
ice skaters. See figure skaters; skaters
ideas, 783
ideas test, 596
Ideational fluency personality trait, 159
identical-elements model, 281
identification
of experts, 207
of memory experts, 540
identify schema for historians reading documents, 573
identity
expertise training and, 756
known in historiometric studies, 322
identity-related activities, 137
ideology
historical narration alternatives and, 576
in historical reasoning, 579
in historiography, 571
IF part of a production rule, 92
IF-THEN rules, chaining to form a line of reasoning, 92
if-then statements in historical reasoning, 579
if-then-do rules, 479
ill-defined problems, software design tasks as, 374
illness script, 343
ill-structured domains, 570
ill-structured problems
naturalistic decision making and, 403
solving in political science, 578
in writing, 391
ill-structured task
improving the structure of, 572
writing as, 389
An Illusive Science: The Troubling History of Educational Research, 81
illustrative frames, catalog of, 141
imageless thoughts, 225
imagery
correlates approach for measures of, 524
in the domain of chess, 523
Galton’s list of questions about, 225
name recall enhancing, 549
self-regulatory process of, 710
in self-regulatory training, 718
use by dancers, 499–500
imagination
of actors in active experiencing, 493
dance subject performed task, 500
mathematical prodigies and, 554
musician outcome representation by, 464
imagined faces, eliciting FFA activation, 667
imaging
brain processing of music, 464
meta-analysis across-cultural language processing, 670
immediate awareness, 590
Immersion Corporation Laparoscopic Impulse Engine, 251
immune systems, actor affective states and, 495
immutable limit, attainable through practice, 684
impeding abilities trait complexes, 159
implementation
as cardinal decision issue, 435
culture and speed in decision, 435
implicit learning, evidence for, 273, 274
Imprimerie entry in Diderot’s Encyclopedie,
improvement
caused by changes in cognitive mechanisms, 698
in expert performance versus everyday activities, 685
greatest early in training, 266
as the ultimate goal of task analysis, 186
improvisation, jazz skill development, 462
Inaudi, 561
inaugural lecture (inceptio), 73
Incident Selection step in CDM, 215
incidental learning, 282
incidents, 189
inclination
mathematical prodigies and, 554
for numbers, 561
income
expertise as a determiner of, 36
on a fee for service basis, 35
incompatible mapping, 271, 273
incomplete descriptions, 93
inconsistency, testing more for, 379
incremental transfer functions for simulation training, 253
independence, indicating for abilities, 591
independent index, identifying exceptional experts, 21
independent learning, 83
index of reliability, 148
indicators of thought processes during problem solving, 229
indirect visual information, 254
individual level
faces classified at, 667
selectivity allowing objects to be coded at, 669
individual longitudinal designs, 325
individual prerequisites for expertise development, 757–758
individual sports simulations, 257
individualism, community needs and, 107
individualized instruction, 70
Individually Guided Education, 79
Individually Prescribed Instruction, 79
individuals. See also person(s)
absence of improvement by experienced, 686
becoming “tuned” to “pick up” information, 268
as context, 758
creative, 761
decision making service to, 423
differences between, 147
differences within, 147
displaying unusual ability to memorise information, 539
domain knowledge use by creative, 763
expertise as an attibute of, 323
expertise prerequisites, 757–758
identification balanced against personal confidentiality, 210
inherited talent and learning by, 613
overestimation of expertise, 750
potential limitations of adaptations, 733
inductive reasoning, 590
industrial education model, 76
industrial psychologists, 186
Industrial Revolution, 75
industrial-organizational psychology, 33–34
inefficiency, novice situation awareness and, 637
infantry officers, situation awareness and expertise, 644–646
infants, 514, 516, 555
inference engines, 92, 93
inferences
adaptive, 713, 715–716
bias creation, 230
drawing, 58, 591
historical, 577
historical reasons, 577
necessary to report why, 230
professional work and, 751, 752
rules of writing, 97
self-regulation and, 713
as uncertain, 93
inferotemporal neurons. See IT neurons
informal assessment, ancient, 70, 72
information
acquisition and experience, 640
age-related loss model, 726
aggregation of historical, 574
amount of, 711
aviation pilots and, 641
decision making expertise and, 424
desire for increased amounts of reported, 224
driver intake of, 648
evaluation by software professionals, 379
gathering skills and experience, 646
gathering skills of new platoon leaders, 646
group expert assignment and unshared, 750
group transactional memory and, 753
historians obtaining, 571–573
intellectual learning and declarative, 507
maintenance mechanisms, 56
management strategies of novices, 648
memory experts organization of, 539
military officer processing of, 645
as object, 134
occluding temporally or spatially, 476
overload and novice situation awareness, 637
quick access representation format, 463
recall, 711
recording massive amounts as counter productive, 198
relevance continuum, 766
schema inclusion of, 639
search expertise, 413
selective, access of relevant, 54–55
ship pilot use of, 197
in situation analysis, 636
in situation awareness, 636
situation awareness and volume of, 637
situation awareness importance and, 636
in situation awareness model, 635
situation classification of, 638
situation environments perception and, 634
tacit knowledge acquisition instruction encoding of, 625
tasks handling novel, 156
types of, 764
understanding of, 477
unshared and expertise, 750
Wright brothers acquisition of, 776
information gathering stragegies, gathering strategies and expertise, 649
information processing
abilities of novices, 649
acquisition and retention of basic skills, 268–276
age of, 191–193
characteristics of, 614
computational models and, 226
context interchange with experience, 615
expertise acquisition and, 59
fundamental limits on, 57
metacognition within, 55
model of human and machine cognition, 42
models of good chess moves, 524–531
models of human problem solving, 11
situation data processing and, 636
viewpoint, 44
Information Processing Theory of Atkinson and Shiffrin, 78
information system design, Scandinavian approach to, 129
information technology
Army supported communities of practice and, 624
communities of practice and, 624
informative movement cues, skilled players more adept at picking up, 247
innate factors. See also talent
achievement and dispositional, 724
evidence for, 458
Galton’s arguments for the importance of, 684
genetics and domain-specific, 562
individual domain specific, 724
limiting maximal performance, 684
limiting performance improvements, 683
musical capacity, 457
versus specialized acquired skills and abilities required for expertise, 223
inner speech, 226, 227, 228
innovation
Beethoven as, 784
as beyond domain borders, 783
Calder motorized mobiles domain specific expertise, 773
Calder’s mobiles as, 773
cognitive processes in, 761–780
creative and value of, 762
creativity and, 761
creativity and domain redefinition, 784
domain specific expertise and, 763
domain specific expertise in visual art, 775
domain-specific expertise and creativity using, 782
as highest level of achievement, 768
influence on Calder creativity, 782
as valued and creative, 763
input-output orientation in decision making research, 404
input-throughput-output model, team adaptation and, 442
inquisitiveness, 626
insight problems, 168
instances
automatization theory, 267
categorical sorting, 174
knowledge capture and, 217
memory encoded retrieval of, 267
perceptual-motor skill acquisition and retrieval of, 507
Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, 212
Institute of Social Research (ISR), 304
institutional structures, scientific knowledge demonstration and, 115
institutionalization
of expertise, 105, 114, 736
of scientific expertise, 115
institutions, professions as, 108–109
instruction
dance formal, 498
early availability of, 13
individualized, 79
instruction classes and teachers in, 75
of ISD movement, 81
in knowledge acquisition, 625
learning fit and, 83
in mathematical expertise, 561
programmed, 77
in Socratic context, 71
systematic design of, 79
teachers and trainers, 79
theatrical forms and, 491
time spent on, 289
instruction design by domain experts, 81
instructional design
pioneers in the development of, 14
research projects on, 204
instructional sequence, student self-assessment as, 77
instructional systems, 81
of Bloom, 79
development, 77
experts and, 81
by intelligent tutoring, 46
Instructional Systems Development movement. See ISD movement
instructional techniques
medieval, 74
systematic nature of sophist, 72
instructivist perspectives versus constructivist, 83
instructors, changing the role of, 70
insurance companies, 383
integration
of experts’ representations, 180–181
as interaction of features, 180
intellect, adaptive, 617
intellectual ability. See cognitive abilities
intellectual and cultural activity interests, 34
intellectual capabilities, 588–598
intellectual capacity, mathematical expertise and, 564
intellectual development, investment theory of, 159
intellectual endeavor, tasks captured in an expert system, 88
intellectual skills
acquisition of, 506
in a learning outcome taxonomy, 78
vs. perceptual-motor expertise, 506–508
Intellectual Skills learning outcome, 80
intellectual stage of perceptual-motor skill acquisition, 512
Intellectual/Cultural trait complex, 159, 160
intelligence. See also academic intelligence; AI; analytical intelligence; creative intelligence; g (general intelligence); Gc (crystallized intelligence); Gf (fluid intelligence); logical-mathematical intelligence; multiple intelligences; naturalistic intelligence; practical intelligence; psychometric intelligence; working intelligence
ability in mathematics and, 556–557
as-process, 161
as-reasoning, 33
calculator ability and, 557
chess skill and, 533
cognitive skills covered by, 87
computational device approaches to, 43
creative, 616
denoting stable, interindividual differences, 724
extended theory of fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc), 588
hierarchical model of, 32
inheritance of, 321
integrating trait theory of with theory of expertise, 588
as lacking in self-taught calculators, 562
memory and, 547–548
as a reasonably good predictor of performance early in learning, 32
role of, 32
successful use of, 34
tests designed to measure abilities of, 606
theory of, 587
working, 758
intelligence research, pioneers of, 724
intelligence tests, tacit knowledge and, 621
intelligent behavior
artificial methods for producing, 42
child thinking skills instruction and, 626
intelligent systems
creation, 217
interfaces for, 213
for tutoring, 46
intensity. See quality
intentions
actor identification of character, 492
actor long-term memory and, 496
actor performance and, 492
actor script segmentation and expert chunks, 493
as key decision feature, 423
interaction analysis, 130, 141
interaction patterns between people, 207
interests
clusters of, 34
expertise and, 34
matching with job characteristics, 158
talents channeled by, 34
interference
attributing to different stages of processing, 664
in a dual-task environment, 676
dual-task specific processing and, 664
related to strategy choice, 666
interindividual differences, 147, 727
factors leading to changes in, 151
individual kinship differences, 737
during learning or skill acquisition, 151
practice reducing the range of, 31
intermediate levels
acquisition by future experts, 62
non-experts and, 179
intermediates
medical student recall as, 341
performance assessment by, 408
situational assessment by, 409
International Master level of chess, 524
International Master level performance in chess, 529
interns, 98, 434
interpersonal relations
in Bloom’s spectrum of talents, 295
as expertise, 162
networks of top performers, 380
team members risk taking in, 444
interpretation
argument claims, 574
of expert function, 747
historian schema use, 573
interpreters of the past, 570
interpretive procedures, skill acquisition and, 267
Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development, 77
interstimulus interval. See ISI
interval level rating scale for chess, 524
interviewing techniques, 177
interviews
of experts, 223, 231, 288
as free-flowing, 176
in-depth career,
people analyzing, 135
as quasi-naturalistic approach, 407
question answering, 176
ratings and sorting tasks and, 206
verbal reporting as, 176
video use, 140
introspection, 176. See also self-observation
by actors on mental operations, 492
in philosophy, 224
problems of, 237
responses of highly trained observers, 225
thinking structure and, 225
verbal reporting and, 176
intuition
as decision making mode, 430
of experts, 12
in military decision making, 412
inversion effect
face object-sensitive region activation and, 668
FFA sensitive to, 668
Investigative interest personality trait, 159
Investigative interests, 159
investment
as cardinal decision issue, 430–431
of human capital and productivity, 747
investment theory
of adult intellectual development, 159
of Cattell and Horn, 724
investors, 236
Iowa Writer’s Workshop, 397
IPL computer language, 42
IQ
academic success and measures fo, 155
brain processing speed and, 548
compared to representing numerosities, 555
as a distinct construct from memory, 548
Gf and Gs decline, 594
of memory experts, 547
not distinguishing the best among chess players, artists, or scientists, 10
as a poor early exceptional adult accomplishment indicator of, 292
IQ scores
mathematical, 556
reasonably reliable estimates of for Cox’s unquestionable geniuses, 321
IQ tests, 590
highest validity for their purpose, 155
test-retest correlations, 155
Is There a Science of Education, 76
ISD (Instructional Systems Development) movement, 81
Ishihara
encoding used by, 547
Japanese memory expert, 541
number and word proficiency, 545
technique dependency, 545
ISI (interstimulus interval), 663, 664
Isidore of Seville, 74
IT (inferotemporal) neurons
developing view-point invariance to objects, 669
training enhancing the selectivity of, 669
jazz, 458–462
jazz dance, 498
JDM. See Judgment & Decision Making
Jenner, Bruce, 710
Jensen, A. R., 556
job analysis
qualification requirement identification and, 187
task analysis and, 187
job design, 187
job knowledge
characterization, 617
tacit knowledge and, 616, 621
tacit knowledge inventory and, 621
job requirements, 189
jobs
as positions, 187
vocational interests and characteristics of, 158
John of Salisbury, 73
joint centers, converting into point light sources, 477
Jolly Jumper, 514, 516
Jones, Bobby, 711
journalists, 397
journals, 139
journeymen, 5, 22
JR (female subject)
all-round superiority of, 545
memory ability of, 543
J-shaped function, 735
judges, 474
judgment(s)
accuracy and expertise, 432
attention in making, 425
as cardinal decision issue, 432–433
classes of, 433
decision making and, 41
in decision research, 432
of jurors in decision making, 433
mathematical modeling of social, 627
tacit knowledge inventory of situational, 618
value issue as special case of, 433–434
Judgment & Decision Making, paradigm of, 404
juggling
compared to expert mathematicians and calculators, 555
examining change over time in the acquisition of three-ball, 477
within-system couplings between postural sway and arm movements, 480
juries
decision making by, 574
expert witnesses and, 755
jurors
acceptability of automaker design decisions by, 435
decision making and, 433
methodological issues of, 133
KA. See knowledge acquisition
Kanfer-Ackerman Air Traffic Controller task, 151
Kasparov, Garry, 525, 529
KB. See knowledge base
KE. See knowledge elicitation
Kemble, Fanny, 494
alpha-keratin protein model, 775
keyboard sequences, perceptual-motor expertise and, 509, 510
keystrokes
preparing future, 697
training exercises, 698
kinematic data, 471
kinesthetic imagery, 500
kings. See monarchs
Klee, Paul, 772
Klein, Gary, 206
Klein, Wim, 557, 560, 561
Knight’s Tour in chess, 21
knowledge. See also acquired knowledge; analytical knowledge; declarative knowledge; domain-specific knowledge; expert knowledge; Gc (acculturation knowledge); job knowledge; tacit knowledge
achievement and, 136
acquisition factors, 324
acquisition of numerical, 564
age-related declines compensation, 726
causal, 342–343
chess expertise and, 526
of chess moves, 524
clinical problem solving and, 346
cognitive mechanism in musical, 464
comparative patterns of, 616
content and organization of by experts, 11
continuum of, 781
contributing to the acquisition of medical expertise, 342
coordination of medical, 346–347
course work by experts, 6
creative and general, 763
creativity and organization of, 346
depth of, 180
of diseases, 344
of domains, 100
eliciting and representing from experts, 203–218
encapsulation in procedure, 463–464
as ever-widening, 764
expansion and productivity, 747
expansion of occupations based on, 107
experiential, 342, 344–346
experiential episodic memory, 342
expert, 598
expert status shifting and domains, 746
expert system factual, 91
in expert teams, 440
expert team shared mental models and, 446
expert team strategic, 440
expert vs. novice, 408
as expertise, 747
expertise and, 4, 47–49
expertise as a large body of, 167
of experts, 4, 215, 405
in experts and novices, 167–181
experts as controllable sources, 751
in experts vs. less-accomplished persons, 235
explaining better chess moves, 523
extent as a dimension of difference, 178–179
facilitating requisition for expert systems, 99
as factual, 479
general ability to use, 32
general expertise and, 765
general expertise and general, 765
historians and, 573, 581
historians use of prior, 573
importance of specialized, 33
individual differences and, 327
instantiation of capture, 217
institutional recovery of, 218
institutions and, 753
instruction and education and, 690
inversion, 55
longitudinal studies needed on development, 581
losing access to, 58
low correlation of with actual troubleshooting performance, 195
mathematical, 542
measuring only surface, 597
medical expertise and, 340, 341
memory and, 532, 545
mental models and, 638
metacognitive, 57, 379
novice evaluation and, 637
as organized or structured, 23
perceptual processing and musical, 463
phase of skill acquisition, 267
pragmatic, 734
as private, 96
production practices, 106
productivity of abstract, 754
profession competition, 754
public vs. private, 95
publishing class of expert systems, 95
as qualitatively different representation and organization, 11–12
quick access representation format, 463
reading as a predictor of general, 397
as reading dependent, 397
reasoning dependent on, 48
relative experts and, 744
relevant, 58
as researcher role, 752
retrieving information from stored, 596
scientific, 115
separation from reasoning, 48
skill-by-structure interactions and, 463
skilled chess players use of, 525
social function as time-efficient use of, 748
in the software design and programming domain, 379–380
specific, 32
specificity in transfer of, 764–766
strategic, 96
studying in everyday settings, 131
system of an expert, 598
talent and interest leading to specialized, 34
team flexibility and, 440
telling by children, 398
transfer of, 765
transfer specificity, 764–766
transference to new situations, 763
transmission of scientific, 115
truth expectations and scientific, 750
types of, 342
usability problems, 54
use, 96
working memory retrieval of, 58
knowledge acquisition (KA), 96–97, 130
bottleneck, 100, 204, 205
cognitive process and, 616
cognitive processes in, 625
component, 619
components use instruction, 625
self-regulation and, 718
shells, 204
Knowledge Audit, 216
knowledge base (KB), 91
capacity to modify, 88
configurations for chess experts, 172
continued maintenance of, 97
expertise in, 90
of medicine both extensive and dynamic, 340
programming of experts as language-dependent, 377
of PUFF, 89
refinement of, 97
widening the scope and size of, 98
knowledge elicitation (KE), 203
as the bottleneck in expert system development, 191
as a collaborative process, 206, 216
combining methods, 214
combining with knowledge representation, 212
comparing methods, 216
evaluating methods, 206
folding into CTA, 208
folding the methodology of into cognitive task analysis (CTA), 206
leverage point identification, 215
methods comparison, 206
methods efficiency, 214
methods palette, 216–218
methods strengths and weaknesses, 216
new goals for, 206
as not a one-off procedure, 217
practicing, 218
procedural sufficiency, 216
techniques in critical decision making, 407
knowledge engineering, 89, 206. See also cognitive engineering
knowledge engineers, 91, 204
knowledge management
systems enabling corporate-wide information, 100
Taylor’s approach now called, 187
knowledge models
creation of, 217
set of Concept Maps hyperlinked together as, 212
structured as Concept Maps, 213
knowledge organization, 179–180
exemplar-based form of, 345
by experts, 9
by experts and novices, 365–366
medical expertise and, 342–347
knowledge representation, 91, 92, 281
for expert systems, 95–96
of experts and novices, 365–368
hierarchical structure of, 175
software design and programming, 379–380
knowledge sharing
Army supported communities of practice and, 624
of expert systems, 99
knowledge structures
accessing, 54
information about the individual’s, 161
information selective encoding as, 616
reorganized by experts, 58
as revealed by contrived tasks, 170
underlying decision-making of novice performers, 479
underlying expertise, 191
underpinning expert performance, 475
knowledge-based occupations, 105, 106
knowledge-based paradigm, 91
knowledge-based processes in older chess players, 730
knowledge-based reasoning
of an expert, 598
of expertise, 599
knowledge-based systems, 88
knowledge-based tasks, 726
knowledge-free methods of cognition, 90
knowledge-lean (puzzle-like) problems, 168
knowledge-rich problems, 168
knowledge-rich programs in AI research, 90
knowledge-telling, 398. See also story-telling
knowledge-transforming, 398
labor markets, expertise valuation by, 748
laboratory
comparing the performance of experts to novices, 265
scientists’ repertoire of possible actions within, 116
studying learning and retention in, 265
laboratory research, high level of skilled performance, 282
laboratory scientists, refining introspective methods, 225
laboratory studies of the development of expertise, 281
laboratory tasks
capturing the consistently superior performance, 688
too simplistic to reach any conclusions of interest, 243
laboratory training studies, 725
lag time, 473
L’Amour, Louis, 397
landings
effects of simulation training, 253
performance of experts’ versus apprentices’, 250
landscaping experts, sorting trees, 180
Langley, Samuel P., 776, 777
language. See also programming languages
abstract, 392
acquisition of weak problem solving methods, 577
concrete, 392
processing and memory use, 558
laparoscopic cholecystectomies, 251
laparoscopic simulator, 250
laparoscopic surgery, 254, 347
laparoscopy, 254
Larson, 109–110
latency measures of expertise, 314
Latin, 72
lattices, 180
law, powerful professions of, 113
lawyers
experts witness examination, 755
income on a fee for service basis, 35
social background of, 757
trained on the apprenticeship model, 6
lay citizens, expertise not easily comprehensible for, 119
lay experts, support role of, 752
laypersons
as counter-distinction to expert, 746
expert knowledge use by, 744
placing their trust in professional workers, 108
leaders
of expert teams, 448
extensive biographical data, 321
hierarchical roles and sharing, 444
social problem responses, 443
leadership
age-performance studies, 329
in expert teams, 443–444
military officer tacit knowledge and, 622
shared in expert teams, 443
tacit knowledge-practical intelligence research, 628
learned category, 345
learned information, 97
learned reactions, 43
learned representation, 275
learning. See also academic learning
abilities indicating consolidation in, 590
to acquire tacit knowledge, 625
actor learning skills and, 496
actor script segmentation, 493
adaptive inferences in, 713
at all levels of information processing, 283
approaches in chess, 532
areas with differing requirements, 83
assessing the amount of change during, 150
automated phase of, 685
behavior self rating by musicians, 464
causal attribution of errors and, 713
cognitive vs. social, 628
of commonplace skills, 506
contextual aspects of, 405
controlled and automatic processing during, 658–661
creating and maintaining long-term investments, 297
declarative vs. procedural, 507
of deterministic sequences, 273
by doing for writers, 397
in domains with particular social values, 300
early in the processing stream, 666
encoding and consolidation in, 596
engagement ability and tacit knowledge, 623
environments, 13, 82
executive cognitive processes in, 616
expert team optimization and, 446
expertise and, 613
explicit-implicit problems in, 274
first phase of for a skilled activity, 684
goal orientation of, 709
from history, 580
illuminating our understanding of, 23
independent, 83
initial levels of, 80
interindividual variability during, 151
involvement in, 592
as localized and very specialized in the brain, 658
mechanisms, 266
memory and practice in, 560
motor, 671–672
neurophysiological principles of, 506
opportunities, 444
outcomes, 80
pattern recognition in, 413
perceptual-motor expertise and, 506, 508–511
performance evaluation and, 716
poorest performing having the most to gain, 151
power law of, 510
practice effects of, 658
probabilistic sequence, 273
process and outcome strategies in, 708
producing areas of activation, 658
producing detectable morphological changes, 658
programmed, 45
rate, 79
ratio resulting in degree of, 79
relationships between initial and subsequent, 80
rhythms of, 289
in the same cortical area as processing, 658
scientifically and empirically investigated, 76
second phase of, 684
self-efficacy in, 709
self-enhancing cycles of, 707
self-monitoring in, 717
self-regulatory competence and, 706
self-regulatory training and, 715–716
specificity of, 666
strategic processes in, 709
studying in the laboratory, 265
task strategies in, 710
technique-oriented strategies in, 709
during tests, 149
of theatrical scripts, 492
theories of, 76
through trial and error, 514
learning curves, individual showing discontinuities, 282
learning hierarchies, 78
construct of, 80
problem solving behaviors decomposed as, 204
use in the ISD movement, 81
learning processes
cognitive representation of musical structure, 463
every aspect scrutinized, quantitied, and aggregated, 76
improving the selection of related chess moves, 697
learning strategies
of actors for roles, 491
of actors use by non-actors, 496
of experts, 412
of jazz dancers, 499
learning-impaired individuals, cases of superior memory in, 547
learning-related brain changes, themes evident in the literature of, 658
learning-to-learn, 736
Lecoq, Jacques, 491
left hemisphere, grouping of chess pieces, 533
left intraparietal sulcus, specialized for numerical processing, 675
left parieto-superior frontal network, computer computation and, 563
left/right brain specialization in learning and performance, 657
legal documents, jargon-filled, 394
legal profession. See also law
constructing professionalism from within, 113
legal services, restricting to qualified professionals, 6
Leinhardt, G., 570
leisure time and activities, examination of, 304
leisurely activities, age-related changes in, 732
Lennon, John, 770
Lens Model of Brunswick, 157
lessons, onset of, 329
letters, highly unitized, 269
levels
of abstraction, 42, 210
of analysis, 304
of decomposition, 210
of expertise, 265
leverage points
in naturalistic decision making, 406
using KE methods to identify, 215
lexical decisions, tasks requiring, 726
Li Yundi, 466
liberal education, 84
Library Client Tracking system, 210
life expectancies, 325
lifelong expertise, 729
life-management, 736
lifespan
contemporary view of, 684
as a control variable, 328
distribution of memories across, 296
lifetime
output correlated with precocious impact, 329
productivity gauging attainment in terms of, 323
light bulb, invention of, 779–780
Likert scale, 618
Lilienthal, Otto, 776, 777, 778
limit
of attention of novices, 57
of long term memory access, 58
of working memory, 57
limitations, apparent in experts, 24
limited-information tasks, 197, 199
line orientation, orientation, 666
line, tracing slowly, 594
linear dependence, 326
linear process, software design and programming as, 374
linguistics
findings and theorizing affecting psychology, 43
processes in writing, 390
Link, Ed, 252
Link Trainer, 252
LISP (LISt Processing), 93
list structure. See structured objects
listening, cortical response to music, 465
list-processing computer language, 42
lists, segmenting into 3-digit groups, 236
literal accounts, compared to documentation, 136
literal features, represented by novices, 178
literary experts, self-recording by, 712
lived work, practices as, 135
lobes of the cerebrum, 655
local community for a young child, 299
“local” patterns, 172
location data in a time diary, 312
location-words, compatibility with vocal responses, 271
logarithms, memorising the table of, 560
logic
domain use of formal, 569
domains permitting the use of, 569
Logic Theorist (LT), 42
Logic Theory Program, 90
logical inference rules, 48
logical-mathematical intelligence, 554, 564
long jump, 480
long looks by drivers, 362
long-distance runner, encoding digit strings, 542
longitudinal designs
aggregated, 325
in historiometrics, 324–325
longitudinal research, 593
of a Canadian chess player, 528
of elite performers, 693
indicating decline during adult development, 593
long-term development of expertise, 299
long-term experience
phases of, 297
required before exceptional accomplishment, 297
long-term knowledge, 638
long-term memory
access limit, 58
in blindfold chess, 531
long-term memory (Glm), 590
long-term memory (LTM)
automatic retrieval from, 54
chess patterns stored in structures, 526
chunks held in, 526
expert knowledge retrieval from, 463
experts storing domain-specific information in, 244
large capacity of, 54
rapid access to, 394
rapidly accessing, 83
representation(s), 391
restructuring ideas stored in, 398
role in decision making, 431
situation projection working memory and, 636
long-term recall of actors, 494
long-term retention
as cognitive adaptation in musicians, 463
perceptual-motor skill learning and, 506
long-term working memory (LTWM), 249
acting expertise and, 496
chess positions encoded by experts in, 50
developed by experts, 558
as domain specific, 560
of experts, 547
mental calculation and, 558–559
protecting from expected age-related changes, 726
rapid retrieval from, 394
results and analyses of, 600
skills acquired by experts, 54
storage in, 600
theory, 249
use in arithmetical calculations, 564
Louganis, Greg, 710
low altitude military flying, 360
low-altitude air combat, 359, 361, 363
low-fidelity models, 347
lowly speeded tests, score indicating level of reasoning ability, 594
LT (Logic Theorist), 42
LTWM. See long-term working memory
lung disease, PUFF expert system for diagnosing, 89
Luria, Alexander, 541
M1 (primary motor cortex), 671
activity distribution for individual digits, 674
implicated in sequence learning, 671
M1 representations, developed by experienced musicians, 674
machine learning
maturity of, 97
processes CYC KB will enable, 99
machines
designing to fit humans, 188
as equal to humans, 192
manually controlled during the age of steel, 186
macro analysis of time use, 308–312
macro level for time spent in an activity, 303
macrocognition, 199, 414
macro-game situations, 257
MACRs (Moderately Abstracted Conceptual Representations), 52
Mailer, Norman, 397
maintenance
aspects of successful, 732
of a knowledge base, 97
as musical practice stage, 461
practice, 734
through deliberate practice, 727, 729
males. See also men
dancer sensorimotor proprioception dominance, 500
management skills
age-comparative studies, 728
strong direct relation with experience, 349
managerial expertise, risk structuring by executives as, 434
managerial literature, concept of professionalism in, 111
managerial success, nAch predicting, 157
managerialist/organizational cultures, 112
managers
excellence and organizational fit, 754
tacit knowledge transfer and leadership development, 628
teams and, 444
Mangiamele, Vita, 562
manipulables, use by calculators in learning, 559
mannequin-based simulators, 254, 257
manual control, 188, 189
manual dexterity. See also fingers
failing to correlate with surgical ability, 348
not correlating with hand motion, 348
perceptual-motor expertise and, 506
manual operations, repetitive, 187
manufactured objects, configuration from subassemblies, 94
manufacturing, scheduling and process planning, 94
MAPP computer program, simulations with, 527
mappings, practice with, 271
Marine Corps Planning Process (MCPP), 409, 410, 411
marine creatures, sorting of, 175–176
market closure, professionalism as, 109
market shelters, professional service as, 109
marketing slogan, professionalism used as, 111
Mars Exploration Rover. See MER
Marxist egalitarian concepts, 117
masks in actor training, 490
mass education, 70
mass instruction, Sophists and, 71
mass spectrograms, interpretation of, 204
mass spectrometry
analyzing data from, 90
rules discovered by Meta-DENDRAL, 91
master(s), 22
advanced students becoming, 5
changes in relations with apprentices, 9
craftsmen accepted as, 5
organizing existing knowledge, 5
master craftsman, 74
Master level of chess, 524
master teachers
experience of studying with, 298
investigations into experiences with, 298
learning thinking styles from, 297
move to study with, 297
mastermind, age-comparative studies, 728
masterwork, 768, 771
mastery
criteria for, 712
learning, 79
performance evaluation and goals, 716
Math Reasoning Abilities personality trait, 159
mathematical abilities, 554, 563
mathematical activities, brain areas used in, 554
mathematical calculation
brain activation during, 675
deliberate practice and, 693
mathematical expertise
brain systems for, 563–564
sex-linked characteristics of, 563
mathematical knowledge, superior memory and, 542
mathematical modeling, tacit knowledge and, 628
mathematical models of social judgment, 627
mathematical precocity, 554
mathematical problem solving
boy-girl test performances, 563
as intrinsically rewarding, 565
mathematical prodigies, 554
mathematical reasoning, 618
mathematicians
high degrees of specialization, 35
representing academic/intellectual talent, 295
tending to live less long than scientists in other disciplines, 325
mathematics
as a basic citizenship requirement, 553
boy-girl test performances, 563
as a cognitive domain, 554
dearth of American students in, 36
distinguishing experts in, 553
domains permitting the use of, 569
expertise likely to show a Matthew effect, 151
as a field in the Development of Talent Project, 288
as a mark of intelligence, 556
quantitative knowledge and problem solving abilities of, 590
Matthew effect, 151
maturity, 723. See also adults; aging; older adults; physical maturity
maximal performance. See also performance
becoming a rigidly determinate quantity, 684
in real settings, 735
versus usual, 734
McCartney, Paul, 770
MDS (multidimensional scaling), 365
Mead, Margaret, 130
meaning of system elements and mental models, 638
meaningful clusters, formed by radiologists, 173
meaningful information, decline of memory for, 593
Meaningful Learning, 211
meaningfulness of configurations enabling better recall, 171
means in modern historical method, 571
Means, James, 777
means-ends analysis weak method, 43
means-ends relations, 210
measurable assessment, 70
measurement
of change, 150–153
of practical intelligence and tacit knowledge, 618–620
in the prediction of expert performance, 150–154
problems associated with the study of expertise, 150–154
scale for evaluating chess skill, 524
measures
of creativity and decision making expertise, 431
reliability of, 148
mechanical arts, making knowledge available, 6
mechanisms
compensating for age-related deterioration, 727
enabling older experts to circumvent process limitations, 727
executing expert performance, 61–62
modifiable to allow gradual changes, 696
monitoring and guiding future improvements, 695
supporting successful aging, 736
mediating mechanisms
changed by deliberate practice, 14
examining, 13
for the execution of performance, 694
expertise development and, 755–757
for superior performance, 16
medical consultation, time spent by older expert pianists, 735
medical diagnosis, 94. See also diagnoses
broad approaches to the understanding of, 340
as a general skill, 340–341
research on minimizing perceptual factors, 235
medical domains, students recalling more about a case, 25
medical education, early expert-novice studies, 46
medical evaluation scenario, motion pictures simulating, 254
medical expertise. See also expertise
aging and, 348–349
as amount of knowledge, 341
involving coordination among multiple kinds of knowledge, 340
knowledge types contributing to, 342
literature on, 340
organization of knowledge and, 342–347
medical experts. See also experts
acquiring information more efficiently, 341
classifying prototypical diseases more rapidly, 344
explaining diagnoses, 56
many examples required to become, 345
synthesizing details, 341
medical intensive care unit, field study, 445
medical literature, decision cues in, 407
medical practitioners, misconceptions arising in, 343
medical profession
analyses of, 109
bias as a serious handicap of experts, 26
diversity, restratification and growing hierarchy within, 109
medical reasoning
multiple processes operating in, 346
under real-time representative constraints, 55
medical services, restricting to qualified professionals, 6
medical simulation training, progress of, 254
medical specialists, tendencies of, 349
medical students, recalling more propositions about a case, 25
medicine
expertise in, 339–350
expert-novice difference studies in, 47
historically powerful professions of, 113
knowledge base both extensive and dynamic, 339
measures of relative expertise, 339
studies of expert and novice diagnoses within a subspecialty, 52
time use literature on, 305
years of apprenticeship, 340
medieval context of skill building and expertise, 72–75
medieval educational structures, 72
medieval institutions, codifying and delineating knowledge, 72
medieval instructional techniques, 74
medieval university, 73
memorization. See also natural memorisers
actor understanding and line, 492
brain areas of activity, 548
of chess players, 525
as expert cognitive adaptation, 463
improving methods of, 539
in learning chess, 532
musical practice and, 461
memory(ies). See also semantic memory
accuracy of, 557
active experience principle and, 493–494
actor script segmentation and, 493
actor skills use by non-actors, 496
age and forward span in, 593
auditory, 559
Bali musicians and, 466
of ballet dancers, 498
in blindfold chess, 531
capacity of exceptional experts, 22
championships, international, 540
as cognitive adaptation in musicians, 463
compensating for limitations in, 529
comprising a number of separate systems, 544
dance pattern mental devices for, 499
dancer subject performed task and, 500
demonstrating superiority in, 540
development and knowledge, 532
differentiated skill levels of, 523
as a distinct construct from IQ, 548
distinguished from calculation, 557
distribution across a lifespan, 296
in the domain of chess, 523
domain-specificity in, 560
driver hazard detection and, 648
effects on the test-retest method, 148
efficiency, 544
efficiency in managing, 560
eidetic, 225
enactment and physical movement, 497
encoding of, 544
examining people with exceptional, 236
exceptional, 539–550
expert knowledge demonstrations of, 539
expert skill-by-structure interactions and, 463
expertise and, 225
expertise as accumulation of patterns in, 463
expertise conceptual complexity and, 767
experts storing of past actions, 685
improvement methods, 539
improvement methods from Greek and Roman times, 539
intelligence and, 547–548
limitations of aids, 547
load in calculation, 557
loaded on a single factor, 544
management of, 560
in mathematical expertise, 557
musical performance and, 463
in musical practice and performance, 461
of organizations as transactive, 753
principles of skilled, 547
rapidity of, 554
recoding and embedding items, 541
retrieving specific facts from, 280
role in early learning, 156
of Shereshevskii (S), 541
short-term working, 558
strengthening of, 560
memory ability
evidence in support of some overall, 544
as independent of IQ, 547
over a wider range of material than numbers alone, 545
self-rating of, 544
memory chunks. See chunks
memory expertise. See also expertise
future directions in, 550
key examples of, 540–543
practical applications of, 549–550
memory experts. See also experts
comparing to control participants’ brain activation, 675
identification of, 540
IQ of, 547
reaching the highest level in the world after two years, 689
Memory for Names, 595
memory patterns, expertise as accumulation of, 463
memory performance. See also performance
decision making and, 431
of decision making experts, 431
differences explained in terms of acquired skill, 675
mechanisms mediating, 11
reanalyzing in terms of experts and non-expert chunks, 172
of savants, 463
memory processes
age-related decline, 726
in chess, 526–528
memory remediation, effectiveness of mnemonic techniques, 549
memory research, future directions in, 550
memory retrieval
versus perceptually available retrieval conditions, 531
representative structure different for, 531
memory search task, identifying probe items, 269
memory skills
acquired by experts, 54
validating numerous aspects of, 236
memory span, natural, 546
memory speed, long-term and expertise, 394
memory structures, underlying skilled performance, 477
memory studies, history of modern, 540
memory superiority
as natural or acquired, 545
theoretical issues, 543–549
memory tasks, studying performance on, 11
memory techniques, distinguishing from a natural superiority, 545
memory tradeoffs, chess research characterizing, 534
memory training, 549
memory type, used by prodigies, 554
memory-visual search tasks, sizes of display sets in hybrid, 269
men. See also males
becoming scientific fathers, 555
music societal factors and, 466
mental arithmetic, sub-vocal rehearsal required for,
mental calculators, validation of, 237
mental capacities
determined by innate mechanisms, 684
found not to be valid predictors of attainment of expert performance, 10
individual differences in, 10
tests of individual differences in, 10
mental devices for dance pattern memory, 499
mental imagery. See imagery
mental models. See also model(s)
assisting experts in anticipating what will happen next, 366
assisting in discriminating relevant information, 366
aviation student pilot situation awareness errors and, 642
continual updating of the current situation, 52
cultural norms of excellence transmission and, 756
in decision skills training, 412
definition, 638
driver physical automaticity and, 648
of dynamic environments, 366
expert teams shared, 440
of experts, 405
future state projections and, 638
in learning process, 413
in naturalistic decision making, 405
notion of, 217
perceived information interpretation and, 638
shared by team members, 474
situation awareness and, 638
as situation awareness mechanism, 638
situation projections and, 636
superior generating superior situation models, 367
mental operations, including as part of the description of learning, 78
mental realm, researchers progressively encroaching, 44
mental rehearsal
dancer movement encoding, 499
dancer pattern use of, 499
mental representations. See also representation(s)
functions of, 56
of historians, 572–573
instrument implementation plan and, 464
musical performance and, 463
for performance and continued learning, 696–698
of prototypical movements, 499
of readers, 391
triangular model for musicians, 464
mental resources. See also resources
automaticity and situation awareness, 639
decision chores and, 431
mental set fixedness, 27
mental simulation
as even sequence envisioning, 406
in juror decision making, 433
in naturalistic decision making, 406
mental walk along a well-known route, 540
mental wargaming in military decision making, 410
Mentice Procedicus, 254
mentoring, 628
mentors, influence of domain-specific, 324
MER (Mars Exploration Rover)
application of the rock abrasion tool, 134
improving mission work processes, 132
mission study limited by the number of observers, 142
rover operations, 139
science and operations support teams, 132–133
merit, 118
merit principle, 119
Merton, Robert K., 115
meta-analysis of sports expertise findings, 482–483
metacognition, 55
as automatic, 57
important to test understanding and partial solutions, 56
within the information processing model, 55
in naturalistic decision making, 406
self-observation processes and, 711
metacognitive activity, 57
metacognitive knowledge, 57, 379
metacognitive self-monitoring, 711
metacognitive skills
in decision skills training, 412
of music learners, 464
musician self-regulation and, 461
metacognitive strategies, 57
Meta-DENDRAL learning program, 91
meta-level knowledge in an expert system, 96
metaphorical imagery, dancers and, 500
metaphors, reasoning with, 594
method acting, 490
method of loci
brain activity during training in, 548
effect of training in on delayed serial recall in the elderly, 549
as a memory retrieval structure, 547
use by memory experts, 548
used by Shereshevskii, 541
method of tough cases, 205
methodical orderliness of human activity, 134
methodological artifacts, 325
methodological issues of jurors, 133
methodologies
benefiting from opportunism, 217
formal experts and, 752
importance of convergence of findings across, 296
relationship to research questions proposed, 296
studied in a workplace, 133
metrics, used by social scientists, 141
Mickelson, Phil, 634
micro level for time spent in an activity, 303
microanalysis, 714
microcognition in naturalistic decision making, 414
microcomputer chess programs, drawing matches with the best human players, 525
micro-game simulations of team sports, 257
microscopic pathology, experts encoding essential information more accurately, 234
Microsoft Flight Simulator, 249
middle ages, expertise in, 75
middle-school students, 626
military
commanders experience with recognition-primed decision models, 411
company commanders CompanyComand.mil as Army forum for, 624
enlisted men and women performance predictions, 33
intelligence and information techniques, 645
jobs, 77
officers information skills and experience, 640
social background of, 757
tacit knowledge for leadership, 620, 622
training, 78
military decision making. See also army command and control; decision making; platoon leaders
cognition in, 410, 411
naturalistic, 409–412
rationale of, 410
situation awareness and, 644
Military Decision Making Process (MDMP), 409, 410, 411, 412
Military Leadership Case-Study Scenario, 620
Military Operations in Urban Terrain. See MOUT facilities
military pilots, situation projection by, 641
Miller, George, 191
Miller, Robert B., 188, 189
mind
computer metaphor of, 509, 510
multiple representations in, 389
mine detection clearance operations, 252
minimal access training, 254
minimal invasive simulation trainers, 254
Minimal Invasive Surgery Trainer in Virtual Reality (MIST-VR), 254
Minimal Invasive Surgical Trainer (MIST), 254
mirror neurons, studies of macaque, 672
mirror system
coding for complete action patterns, 672
expertise specificity of, 672
misconceptions
about simulation and training, 258
about the brain and expertise, 657
factors contributing to for medical practitioners, 343
mission surface operations, 133
missions, rehearsing in advance, 78
MIST (Minimal Invasive Surgical Trainer), 254
mistakes. See also errors
musical performance and cognitive representation, 463
Mitchell, Frank D., 554, 559
mixed designs in historiometrics, 325
mixed event-related design, scanning dual-task and single-tasks in, 676
mixed single-task performance, increase in left DLPFC, 665
mnemonic encodings, 236
mnemonic method of loci, 540
mnemonic methods, 542
mnemonic strategies, 547
mnemonic techniques, 545, 549
mnemonics, 550
mode as cardinal decision issue, 429–430
model(s). See also mental models
for development, 290
DNA double helix structure, 776
expert performance differentiated from expertise, 83
kinds of, 214
mathematical, 627, 628
reasoning from, 96
of situation awareness, 635–637
skill acquisition, 462
of teamwork input-process-output, 441
triangular model of mental representation for musicians, 464
writing practice and, 397
Model of School Learning, 78
modeling, decision making research in descriptive, 404
modeling-by-programming method, 90
Moderately Abstracted Conceptual Representations. See MACRs
moderator analyses, 728
modern dance
historical background, 497
movement sequence memory of, 498
training, 498
modus ponens, 91
molar equivalence, 730
molar-equivalence-molecular-decomposition approach, 730
molecular decomposition, 730
momentary time sampling, 315–316
monarchs
cross-sectional time series analysis applied to, 325
influence on their nation’s welfare, 321
Mondeux, 560
Mondrian, Piet, 773, 774
monitoring
by aviation student pilot situation awareness errors, 642
behaviors of experts, 56
skills of experts, 24
monkeys. See also rhesus monkeys
invasive physiology studies, 676
numerical capacity of, 555
monopolies, professional services as, 109
mood, enhancing a writer’s positive, 395
moral community, professionalism as a form of, 107
Morse code
encoding into phrases, 225
sending and receiving of messages via, 474
motion information, 247
motion pictures. See also films
critical evaluations bestowed on, 323
motion study, 187
motivation
actor domain specific information on, 496
as both an individual quality and as socially promoted, 297
changes over time, 297
characterization, 617
child musical practice and, 461
creating and maintaining to develop exceptional abilities, 297
drive to develop expertise, 158
efficacy and, 444
flow as intrinsic, 395
goal-setting strategies and, 709
of leaders and team performance, 448
linked to performance and future improvements of performance, 693
in mathematical expertise, 561
practical intelligence and, 616
of professional and amateur musicians, 464
required for expertise, 35
self-efficacy components, 158
self-satisfaction as, 713
of software professionals, 382–383
sustaining, 45
motivational beliefs
cyclical phase view of, 707–713
effects of self-regulatory training on, 715–716
self-enhancing cycles of, 707
self-regulatory competence and, 707
of successful learners, 713
motor actions, complex, 672
motor activity of actors in active experiencing, 493
motor areas
in the brain, 656
rapidly changing, 671
motor components
maintaining certain basic, 733
tasks with substantial, 151
motor control
in the brain, 657
research on, 273
motor expertise, regions sensitive to, 672
motor learning, 671–672
motor map, 656
motor patterns, executive control of varying, 729
motor plans, elements of, 508–511
motor programming, processes associated with, 475
motor recall, ballet experts and, 498
motor, sequence learning as not purely, 275
motor skills
learning, 283
of music instrumentalists, 465
productions highly dependent on execution, 479
Motor Skills learning outcome, 80
motor system
inappropriate levels taking control of a movement, 480
involving response locations but not specific effectors or muscle groups, 276
self-organising principles operating within, 479
motor task practice, leading to functional increases of activation, 663
motor tracking task, brain activation as a function of practice in learning, 654
motorization of transport, civil economy, and war, 186
Mouillar, L. P., 778
MOUT facilities, 243
move sequences, memory for in blindfold chess, 531
movement
actor recall and, 496
central role in sports, 473
cerebellar control of, 508
combining with cognitive skill, 472
encoding by dancers, 499
execution, 671
memory enhancement and physical, 497
mental representation of prototypical, 499
production, age-related declines, 726
sequences, 498, 509
skill inherent in world class sport performances, 472
time, 473
between two or move athletes, 473
moves. See chess moves
movie directors
hierarchical linear modeling assessing, 325
recent historiometric study of top, 330
movies. See films
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus
case study of, 769–770
expertise and creativity in, 781
expertise investigation, 457
expertise research on, 457
music expertise domain redefinition and, 784
in a musical household, 562
Picasso similarity, 772
surpassing the technical virtuosity of, 690
ten year rule and, 462, 768
Mozartians, 393
MRI, 548. See also fMRI
multi level perceptual learning, 667
multidimensional scaling algorithms. See MDS
Multinational Time Use Study, 304
multiple cognitive ability tests, 627
multiple intelligences
Gardner’s popular theory of, 554
in school performance enhancement program, 626
multiple perspectives, principle of, 136–137
multiple players, naturalistic decision making and, 403
Münsterberg, Hugo, 186
Murray, Donald, 710
muscles
compared to the brain, 657
fibers, 695
training, 675
muscular-skeletal problems, musicians and, 465
music
the Beatles early, 771
age-comparative studies, 728
aptitude tests, 457
attainment and accumulated practice, 459
autistic savant knowledge and, 463
characteristics of experts in, 305
cognitive adaptations of experts, 463–464
cognitive representation and, 463
compared to chess, 697
composition of classical, 328
compositional training for classical composers, 328
cues in dance, 500
deliberate practice and, 693
deliberate practice and proficiency, 459
deliberate practice improving, 237
deliberate practice related to high performance, 383
development of technique, 466
expert performance in, 15
expertise, 457–470
genres, 458
as grammar-based non-semantic temporal phenomenon, 467
as highly effortful, 460
home environment and excellence in, 458
increased cortical representation associated with, 674
Indian and Mid Eastern improvisation and problem solving, 466
individual achievement differences in, 457–458
innate abilities vs. environmental factors, 458
knowledge, 463
laboratory task capturing superior performance in, 688
metacognitive and self regulation skills of learners, 464
Mozart’s training in, 770
non-European genres, 466
perceptual processing and knowledge of, 463
performers mastering music considered unplayable in the 19th century, 690
phenomenological learning account, 462
practice and performance in, 458–459, 462
practice and styles, 460
practice skills of experts, 461
practices hours and instrumental, 460
proficiency of experts, 467
psychological research and, 467
skill acquisition model, 462
societal factors in performance of, 466
style recycling in, 783
music composition
case studies of, 769–772
equal-odds rule and, 771
practice vs. talent in Mozart, 769
quality in, 771–772
ten-year rule and, 689
music instrumentalist, perceptual-motor adaptation, 465
music learning, practice and performance level of instrumental, 459
music practice. See also deliberate practice
ability difference compensation by, 459
instrumental music learning and, 459
as investment of effort, 458–460, 462
medical problems of musicians and, 465
methods improvement, 466
musical performance and, 458–462
musical performance role of, 458
musical styles and, 460
as necessary for high-level achievement, 458
perceptual-motor skill adaptation, 465
as predictive of success, 460, 511
quality enhancement of, 460
skill maintenance through continuous, 462
stages of, 461–462
as systematic activity, 461
as time investment, 458–460
music training, 673–674. See also training
aptitude tests and, 457
brain processing and, 464
brain structure and functional changes, 465
in families, 756
influencing digit representation, 674
learning and expertise research on, 467
Mozart, 770
perceptual-motor skill adaptation, 465
musical expertise
development of, 462–465
stages and phase of, 462–463
as task constraint adaptation, 463
ten year rule and, 462
musical talent
heritability of, 458
individual differences in, 329
professional musicians showing poor performances on, 724
seashore measures of, 457
skill acquisition and, 457
musicians
beginner supervision, 461
brain plasticity of, 548
brain processing in, 463–464
coding behaviorally relevant movements uniquely, 674
cortical organization in expert, 465
deliberate practice, 699
families and development of, 756
help seeking by, 711
history of demands on, 466
impression management by, 459
medical problems of, 465
mental representation triangular model for, 464
most accomplished spending more time in deliberate practice, 691
older amateur performing as well as young counterparts, 733
physiological adaptations of, 464–465
physiological adaptions of instrumental, 464
playing familiar or unfamiliar pieces and repeating original performance, 687
practice effort and enjoyment, 460
practice patterns of, 705
primary and secondary motor areas less active in professional, 674
recall of music, 463
sense discrimination of, 465
sight-reading performance in, 733
skill acquisition in, 508
talent performance of professional, 724
taxonomy used to code diary data, 311
time for solitary practice, 692
time management by, 711
training changing the cortical mapping of, 695
years of training required for elite, 689
Muybridge, Eadweard, 130
MYCIN
diagnosing bacterial infections, 204
diagnostic strategy predominantly backward chaining, 96
measuring the level of expertise of, 98
nurses as non-persons, 135
performance ranked against the performance of several persons, 98
myelination in professional pianists, 674
myths. See misconceptions
nAch, 157
as a conative trait, 158
degrees of validation for, 157
naive person, 22
name-to-face associations, 549
Napoleon, 325
naps, recuperative, 699
narrative quality, 574
narratives. See also paradeigma
constructing alternative, 575–577
construction and analysis of by historians, 573–577
construction of, 573–574
cultural milieu of, 576
cultural norms of excellence transmission and, 756
emplotment in, 574
fictional presented to college students, 574
narrative and expository components, 575
relation of historical to fictional, 574
serving as cognitive instruments, 574
what constitutes a good, 574
narrow ability correlations, 156
Nash, John Forbes, Jr., 157
National Adult Reading Test, 547
National Ballet School, 499
National Defence College (Sweden), 411
national time studies, 311
national time use surveys, 311
nation-states, creation of modern, 110
natural ability. See also abilities
early belief in the presence of, 71
establishing a biological basis for, 321
mathematical expertise and, 555
natural decision making, 33
natural environment, 243
natural (innate) capacity, precursors of, 724
natural memorisers. See also memorization
mean z scores on tasks, 546
percentage recalled/recognised by, 546
natural memory span, 546
natural observation in expertise studies, 130–131
natural settings, 127
handbooks for observing, 137–138
methods for observation in, 137–141
observation of work practices in, 127–142
observing expertise in, 138
recording methods in, 140
reflectively developing expertise within, 134
scientific observation in, 129
understanding human behavior in, 134
viewing broadly, 128
naturalistic decision making, 403–415
applications of, 412–414
as the basis for expertise, 412
capturing performance in the ‘natural’ environment, 243
expertise and, 405–406
by experts, 403, 404
focus of, 405
future research in, 414–415
in military doctrine, 412
model and theories in, 406
in organizational change, 413
paradigm of, 404
in process design, 413
qualitative research in, 414
in systems design, 413–414
training applications based on, 414
naturalistic intelligence, academic intelligence and, 616
naturalistic paradigm of decision making, 404
The Nature of Expertise, 131
nature-nurture issue, 321
naval aviators. See also pilots
compared to concert violinists, 81
Naval Weapon Engineering School, 196
navigational skills, brain plasticity demonstrated in, 548
Navy combat information center, 448
n-back training, 662
NDM. See naturalistic decision making
near transfer, results reflecting, 728
need as a cardinal decision issue, 429
need for Achievement. See nAch
negative age-effects. See also aging
mere experience cannot compensate for, 734
tending to be more pronounced for complex processing, 726
negative age relationship for backward-span memory, 593
negative answer and defense, 74
negative transfer, 266
negligence, departing from authorized procedures as, 215
negotiations, acceptability in, 434
neo-behaviorists, 44
neonatal intensive care nurses, 407
neophilia, 592, 605
neophobia, 592, 605
nephrology, 341
nested structures in perceptual-motor expertise, 509
network models, 271
neural activity, 661, 662, 665
neural basis of simple retrieval, 563
neural capacities, 604
neural interconnectedness, 726
neural net simulation work, 726
neural perspective, 660
neural plasticity, 506, 508
neurological basis of superior memory, 548–549
neurological damage, 559
neurological patients, compositionality of arithmetical tasks, 560
neurological problems, musicians and, 465
neurological system, features declining with advancing age, 593
neuroscience, evaluating chess players, 533
new math, 81
Newell, Allen, 42, 44, 235
Newton, Sir Isaac, 157
Nicklaus, Jack, 710
Nijinsky, Vaslav, 157
Nine Events of Instruction, 80
Nobel Prize, 12, 293, 323
nomothetic hypotheses, 320
noncognitive hypotheses, 368
non-conscious and intuitive mediation, 12
non-expert narratives, 575
non-experts, general strategy use by, 714
nonlinear systems, 432
nonsense syllables
memorization of lists of, 226
pioneering work on memory for, 49
non-strategic memorisers, 545
non-strategic tasks, 545
non-verbal thoughts, giving verbal expression, 227
normal curve, 320
normal performance curve, 79
normative order, socially-grounded, 107
normative value of professionalism, 107, 110
notational methods, 393
noun-pair lookup task, 153
novel
fear of, 592
information, 156
learning, 161
objects, 669
systems, 192, 199
tasks, 162
novelists, writing habits of, 396
novelty, creativity as goal-direct production of, 761
novice(s), 22
in acting and character intentions, 492
actor script segmentation and expert chunks, 493
adaptive efforts by, 713
Army platoon leaders as, 645
aviation pilot situation awareness and, 643
causal attribution for errors by, 712
cognition, 45, 362
cognitive differences from experts, 44
continuum of task difficulty and, 713
crashing, 56
dancer music cues use by, 500
dealing with chess in a piece-by-piece matter, 50
definition of, 706
differences from experts, 342
differentiating experts from, 168
differing from experts, 373
drivers hazard predictions, 648
inability to access knowledge in relevant situations, 54
information seeking and situation awareness building and, 648
instructing to utilize multiple forms of knowledge, 346
jazz skills acquisition, 458–462
knowledge domain and expert status shifting, 746
as the less knowledgeable group, 22
metacognitive self-monitoring by, 711
missing intermediate levels of knowledge, 179
music proficiency vs. experts, 467
musical practice skills of, 461
musician cortical organization in, 465
performance, 26, 659
performance assessment by, 408
as physics problem solvers, 55
programmers, 175
self-recording by, 712
shallow representations, 175
situation awareness and, 634, 637
situation awareness and environmental complexity assessment by, 634
situational assessment by, 409
novice counselors, 175
novice search task, 659
Novum Organum, 6
nuclear power plants, 413
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 413
null moves in chess, 530
number(s)
calculated by visualizing, 559
calculator intimacy with, 561
testing memory for, 544
number facts
stored by Alexander Aitken, 560
stored by Gamm, 560
number matrix
coding row by row, 541
memorising as a photo-like image, 541
Rajan encoding row by row, 543
number pi
expansion to thousands of places, 540
Rajan’s memory for, 543
number-fact retrieval, 281
numeracy, greater emphasis on, 553
numerate cultures, competency skills, 553
numerical processing, brain systems for, 565
numerical starter kit for calculating abilities, 555
numerosity, infants responding on the basis of, 555
nurses. See also neonatal intensive care nurses
as non-persons in the Mycin program, 135
nursing, time use literature on, 305
Oates, Joyce Carol, 397
object processing, 668–670
expert-level, 668
performed by temporal lobe areas, 668
object representation, based on component features, 669
object scrambling
activity exhibited to, 668
object sensitive regions responding to, 669
object sensitive regions, 668
objective assessment, 70
objective expertise model, 405
objective feedback, 601
objective measurement of variables, 319
objective ranking systems, 319
objective scoring systems, 323
objective tests, 226
objectives, preparing for instruction, 79–80
objectivity
linked to sacrifice of the self for the collective, 117
notion of, 115
objects
brain areas responding to both parts and whole, 668
classified at the basic level, 676
eliciting responses in face processing regions, 669
learned at the basic level, 669
notable enhancement for whole, 669
recognizing backwards-masked, 669
supporting development of face-like individual level expertise, 669
object-word visual search dual-task, 665
observable environment, 43
observable (non-private) categorizations, 134
observation
actual methods of, 129
assessment of practice sessions, 307
of bird flight in glider research, 778
by Edison of platinum burner failure, 779
methods in natural settings, 137–141
in natural settings, 129, 141
techniques in expertise studies, 315
by Wright bothers on bird flight, 778
observational studies
conducting, 195
documenting, 142
duration of, 139
modulated by the observer, 129
program of work for, 139
observational time-motion analysis, 308
observed behaviors
converting into quantitative data, 314
explanations inconsistent with, 227
temporal account of, 315
observed incidents, 188
observed performance improvement, 256
observer
involvement of, 138–139
perspective adopted by, 139
obstacle avoidance
modeling of, 515
in reaching, 515
in walking, 515
occipital lobe, 655
occipitotemporal pathway, 655
occlusion studies, 476–477
occupational closure, 110
occupational context, 157
occupational control, 110–112
occupational groups
discourse used differently between, 113
within the profession of law, 113
professions acting as self-regulating, 106
professions as autonomous, 754
professions as powerful, 109
in a relatively privileged position, 113
seeking a monopoly in the market, 109
occupational knowledge, 617
occupational level, 158
occupational performances, 588
occupational psychology, 728
occupational therapy, 305
occupational workers, 107
occupations
analyzing professions as a generic group of, 108
compared to professions, 107, 108
of the future, 14
knowledge-based category of, 105, 108
official histories
changing, 576
conflict between two, 576
versus unofficial, 576
offshore installation managers, 409
oil, age of (1941 to present), 186, 188–191
older adults. See also adults; aging
benefitting less from training, 734
cognitive aging and active experiencing principle, 496
forced rediscovery for, 736
maintaining high levels of skill through deliberate efforts, 737
stimulating work environments particularly beneficial for, 736
older experts. See also experts
actively maintaining mechanisms vital to their domain, 727
advantages attributed to inter-individual differences, 727
circumventing process limitations constraining performance, 727
compensating for age-related declines, 730
continuously investing deliberate effort, 727
evidence for superior performances in, 727
normal age-graded declines in general measures, 728
reduced age-related declines in skill-related tasks, 728
role of deliberate practice, 693
selective maintenance of acquired, expertise-specific mechanisms, 729
as survivors of an age-graded winnowing process, 728
older physicians, consistently performing less well on knowledge tests, 349
older players, needing more current deliberate practice than younger players, 730
Olivier, Laurence, 495
Olympic competition, dream teams and, 439
Olympic medals, gauging individual attainment in terms of, 323
on-going think-aloud protocol, 176
ontologies, 99
open sports, timing of action in, 473
OpenCYC, 99
open-ended questions in interviews, 177
Openmind project, 99
Openness personality trait, 159
opera
assessing the magnitude of the success of, 324
frequency of appearance of, 323
operational domain as situation awareness model factor, 635
operations, representation specific, 659
operators, experienced not always outperforming less experienced, 359
opponent’s intentions, skill in anticipating, 245
opportunism
exhibited by experts, 24
methodology benefitting from, 217
opportunity in Carroll’s system, 79
opportunity to learn, 289
optimal decisions in military decision making, 409
optimal environment, 562
options
as cardinal decision issue, 431
issue expertise creativity research and, 431
tradeoffs problems and, 434
oral assessment in the ancient context, 70
oral lectures in medieval universities, 73
Orbus Pictus, 74
organic chemical structures, hypothesizing, 90
organization distribution of expertise, 753
organization of knowledge, 179–180, 346
organizational change, 412, 413
organizational conditions, 403
organizational context of work, 136
organizational development, 138
organizational fit, 754
organizational learning, 130
organizational or team knowledge, 217
organizational values, 112
organizations
communities of practice sponsorship of, 624
expert team role, 439
as forms of division of labor, 753
professional work autonomy and, 754
relative experts in, 752
sponsorship of communities of practice, 624
Orosco, Ose, 774
orthography training
effect on overt naming ability, 670
experiment, 670
outcome behaviors, 589
outcome bias, 425
outcome expectations as motivational beliefs, 709
outcome goals, 708
shifting between process goals and, 716
technique strategies and, 714
outcome variables in transportation tasks, 358
outcomes
cognitive acts as evolutionary, 497
decision making expertise and process decomposition, 427
decision making research bias and, 424
expert team management of, 448
expert team performance effective processes and, 447
in expert teams, 440
musician mental representation of, 464
of prospective actions in decision making, 432
value tradeoff and uncertainty, 434
outdoors, recording, 140
outlines, preparing, 393
output motor areas in the brain, 656
output variables for classical composers, 328
outsourcing of professional work tasks, 752
outstanding expertise, learning requirements for, 83
outstanding performance, expertise as, 375
over confidence of experts, 25
overt naming ability, effect of training on, 670
overt verbalizations of thoughts, 227
overtraining, 327
overtraining injuries, 699
p × c criterion, 190
painting. See also art
general domains in, 765
modern methods of, 774
Picasso’ Gruenica as creativity case study, 772–773
paradeigma, 574
para-hippocampus, 656
parental support as a variable linked to performance, 693
parents
beginning musician supervision by, 461
help with self-control strategies, 711
influence on child’s development of expertise, 706
Mozart’s music training, 770
Picasso creative thinking case study, 772
as socialization agents, 756
support of elite performers, 691
Pareto, 118
parietal lobes, 565, 655
Parker, 359
Parsons, 107
participants, 311
in activity studies, 313
better referred to as subjects in historiometric studies, 322
describing general methods after solving a long series of different tasks, 230
as expert, 746
giving information beyond their recalled thought sequences, 230
most probable useful focus of expertise research on, 313
observationa not always necessary or possible, 138
selection of, 313
participatory design, 129
finding a champion for the inquiry, 139
handling various forms of invisible work, 136
primer of examples, theory, and methods for, 138
using ethnography to study work practice, 131
part-task trainers, 78
part-whole training, 278
benefit of, 279
mean game score as a function of, 279
Space Fortress game and, 278
part-whole transfer, 278–280
past as unpredictable, 581
Pathfinder
offering interesting structural facets of expertise, 365
scaling algorithms, 365
patients
end-of-life care prediction, 434
as teaching cases in invasive procedures, 254
pattern(s)
acquired accounting for skilled differences, 524
allowing experts to retrieve suitable actions from memory, 11
chunking into a hierarchical representation, 172
of experience as prototypical, 638
required to reach chess master level, 528
tacit knowledge instruction on information, 625
pattern detection, explicit training on, 369
pattern matching
of current situation and schema, 639
expert novel situations and, 640
pattern recall of skilled electronic technicians, 172
pattern recognition
chess players accessing relevant information by, 527
computer program using to select moves, 530
dissociation from search, 529
experienced physicians using, 349
by experts, 405
importance of in chess, 526
learning processes and, 413
qualitative difference with real-world match performance, 256
role in chess move selection, 525
support for theories emphasizing, 529
underlaying superior memory recall, 305
underpinning chess skill, 529
used by SEARCH, 530
pattern scanning, driver hazard, 648
pattern-letter visual search dual-task, decreases in activity as a result of training, 665
Patton, George S., 410
Pauling, Linus, 775, 782
PBL (problem-based learning), 46
PCATD, 249
assessing performance using, 249
flying approaches and landings, 250
simulation training, 253
PCCAVEmash (immersive table tennis game), 248
peak of career output, 330
peak performance, 688
peer groups, expertise development and, 756
peer-critique mechanism, 83
peer-nomination method, 380
peers
consensus among regarding proficiency, 23
experts recognized by, 4
Pepperdine University Educational Technology, 624
perception
as a contrived task, 172–174
of experts, 173
experts excelling in, 174
of experts versus nonexperts, 362–363
Gibson’s views on, 516
involved in expertise, 174
mental model information classification, 638
musician discrimination of sense, 465
situating in scale bands, 57
as situation awareness level, 634
tacit knowledge and, 615
tight coupling with action, 480
tradeoffs, 534
perception tasks
depth of knowledge revealed by, 180
experts versus non-experts, 172
revealing phenomena of perceptual learning, 181
perception-action links, maintaining during training, 477
perceptual and psychomotor abilities, predicting expert performance, 162
perceptual basis to sequence learning, 275
perceptual chunking, explaining expert-novice differences, 474
perceptual cues
recognition of, 407, 558
yielded by CDM, 209
perceptual diagnosis, domains involving, 234
perceptual discrimination, 667
perceptual encoding processes, 233
perceptual information, 477
perceptual learning
of adults, 283
controlled by top-down mechanisms, 269
at different levels of the processing hierarchy, 666
examining the underlying mechanisms, 268
lack of broad transfer, 269
mechanisms involved in, 268
multi level, 667
research on, 268
perceptual limits, 57
perceptual motor learning, 666–675
perceptual motor skills, 255
perceptual organization principles, 523
perceptual pivot, 476
perceptual processing
hierarchical nature of, 655
musical knowledge and, 463
as situation awareness model factor, 636
perceptual skill
of adult high performance athletes, 482
differences, 525
importance compared to physical skill, 478
in naturalistic decision making, 405
research on, 268–270
training of, 477
transfer across sports, 478
perceptual speed, 156, 725
Perceptual Speed abilities personality trait, 159
perceptual structure, 476–477
perceptual superiority of experts, 173
perceptual training, 477
perceptual-cognitive demands, 245
perceptual-cognitive processes, 251
perceptual-cognitive skills
needed for high-level sport performance, 473
training method, 257
training using simulation, 255
perceptual/memory advantage for skilled chess players, 523
perceptual-memory skills, dissociation with thinking, 523
perceptual-motor adaptation, 465
perceptual-motor components, 151
perceptual-motor expertise, 505–516
acquisition of, 506, 508–511
attention in, 512–513
definition of, 506
dynamical systems approach to, 505, 513–516
ecological psychology and, 505, 513–516
neural plasticity and, 506, 508
requiring automation, 36
as subset of expertise, 505
tasks involved in, 506
vs. intellectual skills, 506–508
perceptual-motor learning, expertise and, 666–675
perceptual-motor procedures
performance benefits when practice procedures are reinstated, 276
training procedures for mastering, 61
perceptual-motor sequences, 276
perceptual-motor skills
acquiring in sequential tasks, 273–276
experts’ superior during laparoscopic-type procedures, 250
medical simulation identifying superior, 257
needed for high-level sport performance, 473
task specificity a characteristic of expertise involving, 47
perfect pitch, 696
performance. See also academic performance; expert performance; maximal performance; memory performance; performance; task performance
academic, 155
acquisition of characteristics of, 305
acting and, 490
actor truthful intentions in, 492
actor-character feelings in, 495
adaptive, 440
adjusting to conditions, 56
advanced programmers performance quality, 378
age-graded stability of, 729
assessment by experts, 408
attending to the constituent steps of, 361
basis for superior, 482
under battle conditions, 77
behavioral, 654, 706
cognitive and conscious-awareness nature of, 475
cognitive and perceptual-motor skills and, 479
cognitive automaticity and, 640
correlating initial, 151
creative, 329
dance expressive aspects of, 500
decreasing with the number of years since graduation, 60
depending on the actions or behaviors of others, 154
describing with computational methods, 41
dissecting into constituent parts, 243
dual-task, 663
dynamic simulations to examine, 248
efficacy and, 444
evaluating an individual’s, 154
exceptional experts identification, 22
expert team characteristics, 446
expert team management of, 448
of expert teams, 439–446, 453
expertise as consistently superior, 761
expertise defined by, 706
experts and individual, 743
experts not always able to exhibit reliably superior, 13
fluid intelligence as a predictor, 549
goal shifting and, 718
habit hierarchy and, 266
historical time and, 690–691
ideal measurement of an individual’s, 154
initial level of acquisition, 62
interdependence of, 154
IQ age-graded declines, 726
at its very best, 288
limited time and, 13
mature adults training, 684
maximal levels attained by deliberate efforts to improve, 305
mechanism mediating representative, 11
mental capacities mediating the attainment of exceptional, 10
microanalysis of, 714
of music and mental representations, 463
musical level of, 466
musical practice and, 458–462
as musical practice stage, 461
musician attitude toward, 464
musician representation of current ongoing, 464
neuropsychological tests and, 662
novice, 26, 659
observing to elicit expert knowledge, 213
practical thinking skills and academic, 627
practice and, 266
practice dependent on distance requirements, 481
predictors for US military enlisted personnel, 33
predictors of early in training or learning, 155
procedural or automatic stage of, 479
as psychological mediator of expertise,
psychological processes during, 714
relationship with experience in transportation, 359
reproducing reliably superior, 13
scrutinizing a single expert’s, 325
simulation for, 257–258
simultaneous untrained, 663
situation awareness and, 634
in situation awareness model, 635
situation requirements of, 639
static tasks to examine, 248
studying at familiar tasks, 170
superior reproducible, 3
support tool interface for, 213
tacit knowledge and, 621, 628
training methods and, 768
untrained dual-tasks, 665
using more brain for, 657
vigilance in decision need, 429
Performance Assessment tool, 408
performance changes
age-related declines circumvented by practice, 481
as a function of age, 323
training-induced changes in, 458
performance control
experts maintaining ability to control, 59
maintaining stable, 691
motivational beliefs and, 707
performance criteria
definitional power and professions, 754
expert status perceptions and, 746
as professional context, 753
relative experts and, 745
performance evaluation, process criteria for, 716
performance failure, identifying sources of, 189
performance improvement
concentration and deliberate practice, 692
effortful exertion and, 396
ever-increasing levels of, 17
experience and, 685
gradual increases in, 13
long-term retention and perceptual training, 477
as a monotonic function of practice, 258
observed, 256
over time with training, 253
self-regulatory training on, 715–716
verbalizing reasons, 226
performance level, 9
asymptotic level of, 33
attaining acceptable for everyday skills, 684
attaining a functional level of, 60
comparing different individuals’ naturally occurring, 232
deliberate practice related to attained, 14
expert, 614
expertise as consistently superior, 762
expert-level methods as more than knowledge, 90
finding methods to push beyond normal levels, 698
instrumental practice and, 459
of professionals, 683
reaching a merely acceptable, 691
performance limits of experts, 17
performance measures
determinants of, 156
in historiometric studies, 323
paradigms and assessment, 244
performance monitoring
conscious in deliberate practice, 601
metacognitive self-monitoring and, 711
retained ability to, 12
self-observation and, 710
self-regulation and, 705, 706, 710–713
performance objectives
learning goals and, 709
use in the ISD movement, 81
performance phase of experts, 710–713
performance skill, self-regulation and, 719
performance standards, creative advances and, 783
performers. See also expert performers
gaining independence from the feedback of their teachers, 694
providing with clear anchors for in subjective ratings, 314
periodicities, identifying in observational studies, 140
perseverance in Carroll’s system, 79
person(s). See also individuals
attribution theory causality and, 750
dispositional attribution of expertise, 751
as expert-in-context, 743
expertise as embodied in, 748
personal adaptations, performance outcome and, 713
personal computer-based aviation training device. See PCATD
personal goals, 705
personal networks, individual competence and, 757
personal protection, defensive inferences as, 713
personal theories, over confident decision making and, 433
personality
characteristics, 155
characterization, 617
correlates approach for measures of, 524
decision need vigilance and, 429
practical intelligence and, 616, 621
profiles, 34
tacit knowledge independence, 621
theory of, 587
personality traits. See also affective traits
not associated with expertise across divergent domains, 158
overlap with conative traits, 158
realm of normal, 157
personnel selection as an approach to promoting expert performance, 383
pessimists, vigilance and, 429
PET scanning, during training in acquisition and use of the method of loci, 548
PF neurons
importance in learning new object categories, 669
training enhancing specificity in, 669
phantom plateau, 225
phenomenon, educational exploration of expertise as, 83–84
philosophers, 224
phonological information, 661
phonological training, 670
photographic memory, 225
photographs
for close observation, 130
in a computer catalog, 140
observer review of, 139
of the pilot’s view from the helm, 197
as primary data, 130
taking systematic, 140
phrases, sentences generated in, 392
physical action method, 493
physical capacity, perceptual-motor expertise and, 514, 515
physical devices, 95
physical education, 305, 756
physical environment, perceptual-motor expertise and, 511, 514
physical factors, 481
physical fitness, 695
physical limitations at high levels of expertise, 151
physical locations, compatibility with manual responses, 271
physical maturity. See also maturity
extended development of expertise past, 689
physical mechanics, 169
physical skills
compared to perceptual skill and cognitive development, 478
expertise development, 644
physical space, 130
physical tasks, 644, 648
physical traits, 147
physicians
conflicting details retained by aging, 349
culture of families of, 756
diagnoses accuracy and, 25
diagnosis performance decreasing, 686
flexibility of experienced, 349
income, 35
multiple forms of knowledge of, 349
pathophysiology description by expert, 56
patient contact, 340
patient end-of-life care prediction by, 434
physiological measurements of traces viewing by, 174
physiological measurements recognition by experienced, 178
poor performance in older, 349
physicists
expert representation as principle-based, 169
studied by Roe, 290
physics
characteristics of experts in, 305
experts and novices sorting physics problems, 51
experts superior to novices in understanding, 569
graduate students sorting physics problems, 174
ill-structured problems in, 578
professors not always consistently superior to students, 686
protocols from an expert and a novice solving, 177
solution standards of, 582
solving problems in, 24
sorting into categories, 174
undergraduate students sorting physics problems, 174
physiological adaptations
in musicians, 464–465
stimulating, 695
physiological development, young start in domains calling for, 298
physiological function research, 588
physiological states
activating extraordinary, 695
actor active experiencing of character, 493
actors emotions and, 495
performance depending, 330
physiology, actor expertise use in research on, 495
pi
expansion to thousands of places, 540
Rajan’s memory for, 543
pianists
age-effects reduced for expert, 734
concert working for an average of years, 289
musical performance model, 464
myelination increased in the brains of professional, 674
older expert maintaining levels of performance, 731
older professional showing normal age-related declines, 729
perceptual-motor expertise in, 513
physiological adaptations of, 464
representing the arts, 295
sample of classical obtaining cognitive speed measures, 602
testing virtuoso skills, 729
piano
expertise in skilled performance, 729
as a field in the Development of Talent Project, 288
music societal factors and, 466
Picasso, Pablo
Cubism as domain redefinition, 784
domain refinement and, 784
expertise and creativity in, 781
father a painter, 562
Gruenica as creativity case study, 772–773
ten year rule and, 772
picture evaluation protocols, coding into categories, 177
pilots. See airline pilots; aviation pilots; fighter pilots; military pilots; pilots (shore-based)
pilots (shore-based), 197
case study on, 196–199
information requirements, 197
information used for navigation, 198
observation and recording of activities, 197
selection by the Pilots Corporation, 197
pistol shooters, 516
placebo group, use of, 256
plan
observational study, 139
typical HTA, 191
plan execution by expert teams, 442
plan formulation by expert teams, 442
planners, 411
planning
by chess players, 234
depth of increasing with greater chess skill, 233
of expert systems, 94
perceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 509, 511
products of a writer’s, 390
skills and multi-tasking, 644
superior ability to generate potential moves by, 233
of text production, 390
planning strategies
codification of, 410
experience moderating the need to create, 368
Plans and situated actions, 131
plasticity. See also activity-dependent plasticity; brain plasticity; cognitive plasticity; cortical plasticity; neural plasticity
of the brain’s reading circuit, 670
as limited in adulthood, 657
of many neocortical regions, 283
plateaus
expertise acquisition, 601
in skill acquisition, 267
telegraphy students progress, 225
Plato
accusing the Sophists on education, 71
concerning education of younger learners, 71
as student of Socrates, 71
whole man approach to expertise, 70
platoon leaders
communication and information issues, 646
contingency and projection skills of new, 646
critical decision making by, 408
experience influence on, 645
situation awareness and new, 646
situation awareness experience effect on, 645–646
play, viewing an expert’s performance as, 128
player positions, awareness in soccer simulations, 246
playing methods, system of in chess, 530
Plogar sisters, 562
plots, generating by historians, 574
pocket notebook, 140
poets, 396, 398
Polanyi, Michael, 615
political belief system, historians and, 580
political culture, expertise socialization role, 757
political fragmentation, exceptional creators likely to develop, 328
political interviews of historians, 581
political science
as an expertise domain with ill-structured problems, 570
as an ill-structured domain, 569
problem representation in, 578
solving of ill-structured problems in, 578
time use literature on, 305
politicians as relative experts, 745
politics, public policy experts and, 755
Pollock, Jackson, 774–775, 784
polygons
determining whether identical or not, 279
illustrations of, 280
polymath, 72, 76
Ponomariov, Ruslan, 524
positions, jobs consisting of, 187
positivism, Covering Law and, 571
possibilities
as cardinal decision issue, 432
stress and neglect in decision making, 432
posterior parietal cortex (PPC), 656
posterior right hippocampal grey matter volume, correlated with taxi driving, 673
post-industrial educational model, 75
power
of expert systems as knowledge, 100
of knowledge, 90
scientific expertise intertwined with, 117
Power Law of Learning, 510
power law of practice, 267
PPIK theory, 159, 161
practical abilities, expertise as, 72
practical approaches in work settings, 383–384
practical intelligence
case-study scenarios assessments, 619–620
characterization, 616
as critical in everyday life, 615
crystallized intelligence and, 617
distinctiveness, 621
domain general tacit knowledge inventories and, 621
expertise and, 613–632
expertise enhancement and, 623–627
expertise research and, 614
future research on tacit knowledge and, 627
general intelligence and, 616
improvement, 626–627
measurement and, 618–620
middle school student degeneration in, 626
personality and motivation and, 617
psychological constructs and, 616–617, 621
reflection techniques in tacit knowledge acquisition and,
research findings, 620–623
research on, 32
tacit knowledge as enabler in, 615
tacit knowledge currency and, 625
tacit knowledge enhancement by,
tests of, 618
triarchic theory and, 616
practical problems, tacit knowledge importance and, 622
practical thinking
academic achievement, 626, 627
skills development program, 626
practice. See also deliberate practice
the Beatles and, 770
in academic learning, 711
activation increases and decreases, 661
actual active less than reported, 308
adaptive inferences during, 713
age and efficiency, 459
age leading to optimal and efficient methods, 734
age-based interactions with, 481
by Calder, 774
changing mediating mechanisms, 14
in chess mastery, 532
consistent, 660
dance technique as skill derived from, 497
disciplined, 709, 718
domain-specificity of in professional contexts, 733
effects on dual-task performance on experts, 53
expertise development and, 705
exponential law of, 267
exposure to particular exemplars and, 345
extreme amounts on a circumscribed set of tasks, 53
hours required, 207
importance of, 31, 480–482, 706
massed over space, 506
in mathematical expertise, 561–562
mathematical expertise and, 564
as means to automaticity, 53
memory elements strengthened by, 560
memory superiority and, 545
need for repeated experiences, 45
overestimation of, 307, 308
perceptual-motor expertise and spaced, 506
in Picasso creative thinking case study, 772
power law of, 267
practice vs. talent in Mozart, 769
process distinction, 135
profound effects of extended focus, 59
quality and quantity of, 716
research on, 53
schedules for motor control, 273
self-directed, 714
self-enhancing cycles of, 707
as self-regulation, 705
self-regulatory methods during, 714
shift from attention-demanding controlled processing to more automatic mode, 282
solitary, 705
structuring of, 705
tasks and mappings, 271
technique focus of, 709
understanding as a skill acquisition variable, 305
variable as ineffective, 660
working memory and, 661–663
by writers, 397
practice activities
age-related constraint on, 735
assessment of, 314
changing states into complex states, 694
isolating to meet all the criteria for deliberate practice, 693
mediating improved physiological function, 695–696
necessary to improve performance, 60
rating for wrestlers and figure skaters, 307
practice effects
on brain activation, 661–666
dual-task, 665–666
of learning, 658
practiced CM search task, 659
practices, 134
of coders, 135
concerning chronological, located behaviors, 135
contrasting with process specification, 135
information regarding optimal structure of, 314
as lived work, 135
practitioners
clinical reasoning of, 47
models of knowledge, 214
models of reasoning, 214
MYCIN’s performance ranked against, 98
reasoning, 198
preceding events, classes of, 580
precocious impact, productivity rates and, 329
precursors of exceptional achievements, 724
prediction
accuracy in end-of-life decisions, 434
of driving hazards and experience, 646
by expert decision makers, 406
by expert teams, 440, 443
by historians, 581
judgment vs. decisions and, 432
as the key to criterion-related validity, 149
perceptual-motor skill learning and, 511–512
predictive information, expert tennis players picking up, 697
predictive validity, 150
concurrent-validity study, 150
musical practice hours and, 459
predictors
of chess skill, 533–534
common variance between, 159
reliability and, 147
preflight information, insufficient or in the determination of AGL, 360
preflight planning by expert aviation pilots, 641
prefrontal activation
as a contested issue, 664
inconsistent dual-task specific, 665
prefrontal cortex in task coordination and interference, 665
premature automation, 685
premature closure by older physicians, 349
premonitions of experts, 119
PreOp Endoscopy Simulator, 254
preparation
actor script, 492
for classical composers, 329
classical composers output and, 329
for creative achievement, 768
expert performance and, 613
Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruction, 79
prescriptive processes
in decision making, 404
in military decision making, 409–412
presentism, 576
preserved differentiation, 727
pre-SMA neurons, 672
pre-SMA (pre-supplementary motor area), 672
Pressey, Sidney L., 77
pre-supplementary motor area. See pre-SMA
prewriting phase
pre-texts in, 390
of professional writing, 391
primary ability factors, 589
primary education, 75
primary motor cortex (M1), 671
principle of merit
based on expertise, 118
shift towards, 118
print exposure, composite measure of, 397
printing, process of, 6
prioritization
of goals of air traffic controllers, 367
of pilots, 368
situation awareness comprehension and, 646
skills and multi-tasking, 644
priority learning in skill acquisition, 658
private questions (responsio), 73
privileged groups, 75
privileges, 118
probability of failure (p), 190
probability statements, Bayes’ Theorem inferring the probabilities, 93
probes
auditory, 392
basic knowledge available with specific, 343
specific questions, 209
target set item identification, 269
problem representation
as expert reasoning, 344
expert-novice differentiation, 169
experts developing, 23
phases of, 168
in political science, 578
problem solving
in blindfold chess, 531
in chess, 523
chess research tradeoffs, 534
as cognitive adaptation in musicians, 463
community of practice sessions and, 624
computational models of, 530
by computer, 95
constraints in, 579
decision making research and, 422
decomposition as learning hierarchies, 204
deliberate, 705
determining characteristics of expert, 88
development of, 533
domain-specific expertise and, 764
experience dimension use, 33–34, 36
by expert teams, 440
expertise development and deliberate, 705
at high levels of ability, 88
by historians, 577–580
India musicians and, 466
information processing models, 11
mathematical, 563, 565
mental model role in, 638
model of, 92
modeling of world-class, 88
situation analysis and, 763
skills improvement, 623
strong vs. weak methods of, 763
studies of, 44
tacit knowledge and, 627
thought processes indication, 229
thought role in, 626
troubleshooting and, 188
weak methods of, 577
weak versus strong methods, 578
problem spaces, 168
content of rhetorical, 391
searching, 89
problem specialists, experts as, 748
problem statements, asking participants to sort into categories, 174
problem-based learning. See PBL
problems
decision expertise scholarship and, 429
definition by Wright Brothers, 777
expert evaluation of, 44
expert interpretation of, 747
experts conceptualizing, 599
finding real world, 170
judging the difficulty of, 24
requirement analysis, 375
solving by recognizing similarity to already-solved problems, 344
solving multi-step very quickly and accurately,
structure of perception, 23
procedural knowledge
characterization, 617
vs. declarative, 88
developing along with factual knowledge, 479
procedural learning
neural plasticity and, 508
vs. intellectual learning, 507
procedural phase of skill acquisition, 267
procedural reinstatement, 276
procedures
creatively interpreting, 129
decision making formalistic and subjective, 433
invention by expert teams, 440
musical practice by beginners and written, 461
process change, naturalistic decision making as basis for, 412
process control
dynamic environment of, 358
in the steel and petrochemical industries, 189
process criteria, 715–716
process decomposition, 426–427
process design, 413
process goals, 708, 716
process learning, 347
process models, 135, 530
process monitoring, 95, 656
process orientation
in decision making research, 404
medical diagnostic expertise and, 340
process specification, 135
process tracing methods, 244
process units, 474
process-dissociation procedure, 274
processing. See also automatic processing
age-related changes in, 725–726
automatized, 458–459, 462
bottlenecks, 676
controlled and automatic learning in, 658–661
cortical area for, 658
efficiency, 662
efficiency change, 655
units of, 667
processing speed. See Gs
processing strategies, skilled performance and, 477
procrastination for writers, 395
prodigies
Bamberger’s work with, 297
as born or made, 532–533
characteristics of arithmetical, 554
mathematical, 554
memory type and, 554
studies of, 292
prodigious abilities, 554
product delivery consultants, 624
production, creativity and intentional, 762
production rules, 11, 92
production systems
building psychological simulations of problem solving, 91
of experts for problem solving, 179
of skill acquisition, 479
productive knowledge, 748
productivity
creative, 320
expert human capital investment and, 747
final career years and, 330
products
creative, 763, 776
gauging acquisition according to the number of, 324
professional achievement
age-related declines in, 683
factors influencing the level of, 683
professional activities, larger amount of in older experts, 733
professional associations
benefit recognized in some, 110
certifying acceptable performance, 9
as communities of practice, 624
intellectual history of the sociology of, 107–114
sociology of, 106–114
theories and results of the sociology of, 112–114
professional competitions, 748
professional cultures, 757
professional development
tacit knowledge and, 621, 628
traditional view of, 684–686
professional discourse, 111
professional domains, 685
professional expertise
different types of, 15
techniques measuring various types of, 687
professional forums
Army communities of practice as structured, 624
effectiveness of structured, 625
professional judgment, 403–415
process of, 404
qualitative analysis of, 404
utility theory and, 404
vs. prescriptive processes, 404
professional performance, 111
professional project, 109–110
professional schools, 9
professional skills, 732
professional software developers, 382
professional standards
as an indicator of proficiency,
power of defining, 754
professional status, 462
professional work,
abstract knowledge and, 754
autonomy of, 754
characteristics of, 108
speeded up by expert systems, 94
task sequences of, 751
professional writers
ethnographic studies of, 397
as generalists, 393
habits of, 395
language of, 391–392
problem solving by, 391
specific kinds of, 399
professional writing. See also writing
deliberate practice and, 693
expertise and, 389–399
professionalism
attraction to skilled workers, 109
being imposed “from above”, 113
categorization of, 113
constructing and demanding from within, 113
disciplinary control at the micro level, 112
as a force for stability and freedom, 107
as a form of moral community, 107
as market closure, 109
as a normative and functional value, 107–108
occupational change and control, 111
occupational change and rationalization, 111
as occupational control, 110–112
powerful motivating force, 111
reality of, 112
reappraisal of, 110–111
redefinition, 111
wide-ranging appeal and attraction of, 111
in writing, 393
professionalization
differentiating Anglo-American and German forms of, 113
formal expert and, 753
as a legal restriction of access, 118
for scientists, 115
professionals
acquiring confidential knowledge, 108
aging as skill and bodily constraint compromise, 735
formal expert and, 752
high performance levels in many older, 723
individual differences in, 683
institutionalization of experts as, 751
psychometric ability tests measures for, 725
researcher as, 752
social form of, 749
specialized expertise receiving larger incomes, 35
superior performance by older, 727
workers as self-controlled and self-motivated, 113
professions. See also medical profession
as arrangements for dealing with work, 108
authority of, 107
bureaucratic organization hierarchy alternative, 107
expert performance criteria setting by, 746
expert performance quality and,
as institutionalization of expertise, 105
as institutionalization of experts, 751
as institutions, 108–109
jurisdiction and competition, 754
as occupational groups, 754
as occupations, 108
performance criteria and, 754
political and economic environment changes in Europe, 107
as powerful occupational groups, 109
as (privileged) service-sector occupations, 106
separateness of, 108
study of, 105
proficiency
domain transfers of, 47
level assessment, 22
scale of, 22
scaling, 207–208
study of, 404
testing for ship captains, 198
program comprehension, 378–379
program of work for an observational study, 139
programmatic study, observation as, 138
programmed instruction, 77
programmed learning, 45
programmers. See also computer programmers
comparison of inexperienced and experienced, 376
design experiences of, 376
experienced focusing on the most salient parts of the plan, 377
sorting by solution algorithms, 175
programming, 374. See also response programming
abstract skills and knowledge, 377
as conceptualization of expertise, 375, 381
domain of, 374–375
empirical studies on, 375–379, 381
historical research on expertise in, 373–374
perceptual-motor expertise theory and, 509, 510
plans stored by experts, 377
problem sorting by expert and novice programmers, 175
strategies range for, 374
summary results of comparison between experts and non-experts, 376
programming languages
acquisition of new, 377
complex plans developed on, 377
invented for AI, 93
progress by children and practice, 460
progressive deepening of search trees in chess, 529
project teams, professional software development, 380
projection
aviation student pilot situation awareness errors and, 642
driver attention and skills in, 648
of future states, 638
by new platoon leaders, 646
PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic), 93
properties, using to specify relations, 92
propositional analysis methods, analyzing think-aloud protocols, 342
propositions in Concept Maps, 211
proprioception
in dance, 500
dominance in dancers, 500
use by dancers, 499–500
prosopagnosia patients, studies of, 668
PROSPECTOR, determining site potential for geological exploration, 204
protocol analysis
analyzing verbal data, 195
central assumption of, 227
diagnosing thinking and, 237
eliciting data on thinking, 227–231
expert knowledge and reasoning with, 205
expert-performance approach and, 231
goal of, 177
information on expert performers attention on, 237
methods of, 224
study of thinking using, 41
verbalization conditions and, 230
Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data, 191
protocols, coding by radiologists, 173
prototype theories
of concept formation, 344
of expertise, 614
prototypes
clear advantage for starting from, 345
in decision making, 406
situation awareness and, 639
proxemics, 130
proximal development, 758
PRP (psychological refractory period), 663
PRP (psychological refractory period) design, 666
PRP (psychological refractory period) effect
as immutable with practice, 663
reduction with practice, 278
response-selection bottleneck attribution, 277
as a structural limitation, 277
PRP (psychological refractory period) interference, 666
PRP (psychological refractory period) paradigm, 664
finding spatially distinct prefrontal activity, 665
studying dual-task performance, 276
PRP (psychological refractory period) tasks
compared to ISI, 663
typically given response priorities, 663
pseudoarithmetic rules, 281
psychobiography, 320
psychohistory, 320
psychological constraints, 61
psychological constructs
intelligence as, 616
practical intelligence and tacit knowledge and, 621
psychological costs, decision options and, 431
psychological elements, underlying perceptual-motor control, 510
psychological fidelity, 244
psychological measurements, predicting individual differences, 155
psychological mechanisms
acquired knowledge and situational constraint interaction, 615
of expert-interaction, 749
superiority development and, 757
psychological perspectives, 62
Psychological Principles in System Development, 77
psychological processes
nature of learning as, 78
during performance, 714
research into chess, 523
psychological refractory period. See PRP
psychological safety
in expert teams, 444
learning and, 444
psychological tests, administered by Roe, 290
psychological traits. See traits
psychologists, cross-sectional time series analysis applied to, 325
psychology
actor expertise use in research on, 495
cognitive, 506
compared to history, 582
ecological, 505, 513–516
of expertise, 204, 748
expertise definition in, 614
expertise in, 582
expertise studies in, 204–205
expertise study and, 761
practical intelligence and tacit knowledge theory, 614
study of expertise in, 14
time use literature on, 305
The psychology of human-computer interaction, 191
psychology professors, 621
psychometric ability factors, 723
psychometric analyses, 12
psychometric approach to chess skill, 524
psychometric considerations, 147
psychometric data, 540
psychometric factors, 49
psychometric intelligence
at early stages of learning a new skill, 725
interindividual differences in, 727
researchers in, 724
psychometric reliability, 148
psychometric tests
for admitting students, 10
of experts, 10
psychometrics, 147
compared to historiometrics, 320, 322
psychomotor abilities, predictive validity of for task performance, 156
psychomotor activities
in Bloom’s spectrum of talents, 295
expertise dependent on, 33
learning phase of, 32
practice and aging process and, 462
psychomotor skills
aviation pilot situation awareness and, 643
in a learning outcome taxonomy, 78
psychomotor-mental modeling dimension, 33–34, 36
psychopathology
experts with serious, 157
incidence rate above the population average, 327
psychotechnicians, 186
psychotherapy, 623
public audience for writing, 394
public broadcasts, 9
public dispute (determinatio), 73
public interest, alternative interpretations of, 113
public policy, experts and, 755
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 393
PUFF expert system, 89
pulmonary medicine, 89
pure alexia, 670
QA3 computer system, 48
quadratic function, 331
Quadrivium, 70, 73
Quaestio Method, 75, 84
qualitative analyses, 23
qualitative changes, 266
quality
in decision making, 423–427
expert certification of, 754
measures of, 314
in music composition, 771–772
musical practice, 460
of service value, 111
quantitative analyses, 319
quantitative changes, 266
quantitative knowledge. See Gq
quantitative measurement, 147
quantitative measures, 313–314
quantitative methods, 187
quantitative scale, 324
Quenault, 359
questions
abstract, 25
asking to elicit expert knowledge, 213
concrete, 25
direct, 177
interview, 176
in interviews, 177
open-ended, 177
private, 73
probe, 209
research, 292
why, 230
Quételet, Adolphe, 320–321
quick diary log. See stylized activity list
quiet eye periods, 476
racecar drivers, 359
racial differences, 457
radiologists, 172, 174
railway motormen, 186
Rajan Mahadevan, 542–543, 545, 546
Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 561
random chess moves, recall in blindfold chess and, 531
random chess positions, recall of, 527
random processes
creative thinking evolution and, 771
music composition quality and, 771–772
range, restriction of, 153–154
rank order neurons, 672
rapid chess games, grandmasters rapid play quality, 529
Rasmussen, Jens, 188, 208
rating system
of chess, 524
for chess, 524
rational behavior, normative model of, 404
rational-analytic theories in military decision making, 409
rationalist paradigm
as cognitive, 404
of decision making, 404
rationality as applying knowledge, 136
reaction time (RT)
interval, 475
older adults slower, 594
reaction times, 174, 473
reactive consequences of extensive verbal descriptions, 228
reactive effects of instructing students to explain performance, 230
reactivity
avoiding the problem of, 224
of verbal reporting, 227
readers
awareness of, 394
poor versus skilled, 671
text comprehension of, 391
reading
brain areas supporting, 670
inferior frontal and ventral fusiform regions as a function of, 671
as a knowledge predictor, 397–398
relationship to comprehension skills, 53
Realistic interest personality trait, 159
realization problem, 42
real-life decisions
as cardinal decision issue, 427
relying on analogical reasoning and schematic techniques, 33
real-world demands
capturing, 246
reproducing in a standardized setting, 250
real-world domains
creative thinking in, 764
studying expertise in, 170
real-world perceptual characteristics, 245
real-world performance
improving via simulation, 257
usefulness of training under simulated conditions in improving, 258
real-world tasks, future studies using more complex, 382
reappraisal of professionalism, 110–111
reasoning. See also medical reasoning
by analogy in chess, 532
blackboard model of, 92
causal, 579–580
chains used by radiologists, 181
by a computer, 87
dependent on knowledge, 48
development of new methods for different kinds, 96
domain-general or global strategy, 167
in early learning, 156
engine, 91
expertise residing in the power of methods, 90
experts graceful in, 55
by historians, 577–580
IF-THEN rules and, 92
mathematical, 618
methods of knowledge engineering, 91
models creation, 209
novice performance limits and, 57
separation from knowledge, 48
skill as predictor, 732
strategies of experts, 215
tests of, 606
types of events occuring for effective, 58
with uncertainty, 93
under uncertainty, 96
weak methods of, 577
reasoning abilities, 23, 590
adult intelligence and, 605
high levels of, 599
recall
actual performance insight and, 245
concrete versus abstract language and, 392
as a contrived task, 171–172
dancer music cues use by, 500
delayed, 543
expert-novice differences paradigm, 181
of experts, 600
of experts compared to novices, 25
high correlations with decision accuracy, 478
information, 711
investigating knowledge and knowledge representation, 379
knowledge characteristic of medical experts, 341
of movement sequences by modern dancers, 498
perceptually-demanding sports paradigm, 245
of program lines, 379
of random chess positions, 527
reconstructed by CHREST, 527
SF falling back on rote, 542
shift from generation to, 507
as a standard task, 170
structured by goal-related sequences in baseball, 51
superior for experts, 341
Recent Case Walkthrough method, 216
reciprocal interactions
in brain processing regions, 667
specialized processing regions and, 656
recognition by experts, 23
recognition experiments on chess proficiency, 528
recognition tests of previously viewed structured game plays, 478
Recognitional Planning Model (RPM), development of, 410
recognition-based problem solving, 56
Recognition/Metacognition model, 406
recognition-primed decision (RPD), 363
efficiency of, 442
mode efficiency and experience, 430
schema informational content and, 639
Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD) Model, 406–409
army command and control and, 409
chess players and, 408
design engineers and, 408
electronic warfare technicians and, 408–409
fireground commanders and, 407
in military decision making, 410
neonatal intensive care nurses and, 407
offshore installation managers and, 409
origin of, 407
platoon commanders and, 408
vs. military decision making models, 411, 412
recollective memory, 296
recommendations, experts making inconsistent, 4
reconstruction, abilities of, 590
record-breaking levels of performance, 690
recorders, 570
recording methods, 140
recordings
labeling of, 140
outdoors, 140
recreation, 305
recuperative naps, 699
reduced level of expertise, 344
reductio ad absurdum, 91
referees
differentially more skilled on tasks directly tapping their role, 478
requisite skills for, 474
reference condition, 511
reflection
expertise involving, 55–57
restructuring and, 398
tacit knowledge acquisition and, 626
reflective explanations, 176
regression analytic techniques
for classical composers’ study, 328
multiple in historiometric research, 325
statistical power to detect age-by-expertise interaction, 728
regression-to-the-mean effects, 150–151
regulatory mechanisms in adaptive expert teams, 442
re-investigations in chess, 529
relative expertise, study of, 23
relative experts
characterization, 745–746
diagnostic function of, 752
as expertise in context, 746
particular contexts and, 744
team role assignment and, 752
reliability
of any measurement, 148–149
index of, 148
Renaissance, 489
Renaissance Man, 76
reorganization
of regions supporting performance, 661
of tasks involving different brain regions, 658
repeating sequence, RT as a function of practice for groups,
repetition
in deliberate practice by writers, 396
expertise development and, 705
repetitive routines of experts, 4
repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. See rTMS
report outlines, observer circulating for comment, 139
reporting, accomplishment of, 136
representation(s), 168. See also abstract representations; aural representation; cognitive representations; cortical representation; hierarchical representation; knowledge representation; learned representation; mental representations; problem representation
aural, 461
chess players refining, 697
differences in, 178–181
dual role of, 696
event, 572
expertise involving functional, abstracted, 50–53
in expertise study, 168–170
of experts’ knowledge, 167
functional hierarchic, 195
functional nature of experts’, 52
graphemic, 390
hierarchical by experts, 179
higher levels acquired to support clinical memory, 235
incremental performance improvement and, 696
integratedness or coherence of, 180
learned, 275
long-term memory, 391
as more like lattices than hierarchies, 180
schematic, 366
shallow versus deep, 175
text, 572
unitized, 269
visuo-spatial, 549
representation areas
in the brain, 656
hierarchical stages of each, 657–658
specific nature of, 675
representation process of historical experts, 578
representation situations, 232
representation specific operations, 659
representational differences
empirical methods to uncover, 170–178
between masters and less proficient chess players, 172
representative structure for memory retrieval, 531
representative tasks
capturing the essence of expert performance, 13
measuring adult expert performance, 13
recreating in the laboratory, 244
reproducibly superior performance, 553. See also superior performance
capturing and examining with laboratory methods, 686
domain-specific experience necessary for attaining, 688–690
experience and, 687–691
no evidence for abrupt improvements of, 688
reprographics store, ethnographic study of, 132
The Republic, 71
reputation as expertise, 569
requirements analysis, 374, 375–378
research. See also expertise research
acting process empirical investigations, 491–495
actor expertise use physiological and psychological, 495
actor physiological and psychological investigations, 495
actor processes application, 496–497
classifying as structural and developmental on expertise, 598
on cognitive basis for expertise, 614
on cognitive mechanism development, 613
on communities of practice, 624
conducting in uncontrolled or non-laboratory contexts, 205
dance expert/novice, 499
dancing process empirical investigation, 498–499
on decision making, 422, 426
decision option issues and, 431
on the development of expertise, 4
on expert team leadership, 443
on expert teams, 440–444
on expertise, 613
on expertise and expert performance, 244
for historiometric sample subjects, 322
individual differences in music, 457–458
on instructional design, 204
model building method, 775
music and expertise, 466–467
in music expertise, 465–467
paradigms applied to sport expertise research, 482
peer consensus on expertise in, 426
on practical intelligence and tacit knowledge, 620–623, 627
on practical intelligence development, 623
practicing clinicians use in, 426
on software design and programming expertise, 374
research designs in historiometrics, 324–325
research institutions, 76
research methods. See also simulation
expert team, 444–446
in reflection technique, 626
research neurologists
development of exceptional, 298
representing academic/intellectual talent, 295
research neurology in the Development of Talent Project, 288
research participants
of historiometric inquiries, 331
in psychological research, 322–323
research skills of historians, 581
researcher as knowledge expert, 752
Resolution Theorem Proving Method, 90
resource management
deficit in non-experts, 362
developing with expertise, 360
strategies and, 368
strategies developed by experts, 361
training and resulting expertise on, 360
resources. See also mental resources
decision making requirements, 441
expert team optimization of, 446
experts ability to manage better than nonexperts, 368
hazard detection and free, 363
of historians, 571
investment in decision making, 430
management of, 368
offered by communities of practice, 290
team allocation of cognitive and behavioral, 442
response execution, 473
response latency, 229, 314
response programming, 475
response schemata in critical decision making, 409
response selection, 270, 473, 475
better characterized as limited-capacity, 277
differentiating from execution, 479
performing only for one task at a time, 277
response set, visuospatial versus verbal, 271
response time (RT)
CM versus VM practice, 269
power law reduction of, 267
practice and, 267
practice session and display type in, 271
reported thoughts and, 229
tennis simulation reduction, 256
response-selection
bottleneck model, 277
research on, 270
rules, 273
response-stimulus interval. See RSI groups
rest time, inverse relationship with skill level, 308
restriction of range, 153–154
results
decision making expertise assessment based on, 425
high-quality decision making and satisfaction, 424
key decision feature satisfying, 423
satisfaction and quality in decision making, 423–424
retention, 591
by actors of roles, 491–494
creative thinking and selection, 771
evidence of superior natural memory in, 546
of a large proportion of original material, 540
loading on a separate factor or factors, 544
perceptual-motor expertise and, 506
studying in the laboratory, 265
tests, 266
retinotopic map, 656
retired individuals, 217
retrievable memory, 230
retrieval
actor long-term memory and clues, 496
arithmetical problems and, 560
from memory of a substantial amount of material, 540
process, 267
of words and roles by actors, 491
retrieval structure
aiding retrieval and encoding, 547
flexibility in blindfold chess, 531
memory skills and, 547
in superior memory, 547
retrievers, 153
retrospection, 209
retrospective data, validating diary data, 306
retrospective estimates, reflecting amount of practice participants aspire to, 307
retrospective explanations, 176
retrospective interviews
advancing the development of talent, 300
allowing an examination of experience, 292
of expertise and expert performance, 290–292
as inherently, biographical studies, 288
not the method of choice, 299
pointing to qualitatively different phases, 297
sensitive to challenges from social moments, 296
in the study of expertise and expert performance, 287–300
studying long-term development of expertise, 292–296
retrospective method of identifying exceptional experts, 21
retrospective reports
criticisms of the validity and accuracy of, 227
on expert performance in sport, 306
retrospective study of unquestionable geniuses, 321
Reverse Hierarchy Theory, 666
reviewing ideas and text phase of text production, 390
revision phase of reworking the first draft, 391
revisionist writings, earlier and subsequent, 576
rhesus monkeys. See also monkeys
rhesus monkeys, attached to a primary caregiver, 592
rhetoric
acquiring domain-specific, 398
mastering in a given domain, 393
narratives as, 573
single base skill central to Sophism, 72
transferring into all types of subject domains, 72
writers specializing in specific, 393
rhetorical problem space, 391
RIASEC method, 158
rich getting richer phenomenon, 151
right caudate, 673
right hemisphere, 533
right inferior frontal gyrus (RIFG)
activation of, 664
activity not specific to dual-task interference, 665
eliciting under conditions of high interference, 666
rigidity, acquired by experts with increased skill, 249
risk, 108
risk taking, 434
Rivera, Diego, 774
road hazards, predication and experience, 646
robotic surgical system, 251
Roe, Anne, 290–291, 292, 294, 295
roles
actor learning skill use, 496
ambiguity of, 382
differing across sports, 474
domain-specific, 324
empirical tests of, 474
resources acquisition and theory, 751
in sport, 473
Rome, dramatic art in ancient, 489
root cause analysis, cardinal decision issues and, 428
roots, world record in extracting, 560
Rorschach test, 290
Rotterdam Municipal Port Management, 196
rough draft, 393
Round about a Pound a Week, 304
routine expertise, 377, 383
routine operations, expert strategies limited to relatively, 258
routines
cognitive automaticity and performance of, 640
formation of, 509
in naturalistic decision making, 405
possibility of becoming tacit, 216
tree-traversal, 510
Royal Academy of Music, 9
royalty, 321
Royce, Josiah, 76
RPD Model. See Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD) Model
RPM. See Recognitional Planning Model (RPM)
RSI groups, 274
RT. See reaction time; response time; serial RT tasks
rTMS (repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation), 671
Rubinstein, Arthur, 711, 731
rule. See production rule
rule-based decision making, 430
rule-based systems, 92
rules
central to human learning and problem solving, 226
compiling into efficient productions, 479
of experts versus novices, 179
as simple knowledge, 638
runners, specific respiration/step ratios in expert, 480
running times, encoding digit strings as, 542
rural areas, tacit knowledge inventory of Kenyan children in, 621
SA. See situation awareness
Safe Speed Knowledge Test, 623
safety engineering of nuclear power and aviation, 208
sailors, transforming visual information, 248
salary of experts, 748
samples, defining, 293–294
sampling procedures of historiometrics, 322
SAR (short-term apprehension and retrieval), 590
abilities enabling apprehension and retention for a short time, 605
age-related declines in, 593
declining in adulthood, 593
SAT. See Scholastic Assessment Test
satisficing, 406
savants
atonal music imitation by, 463
autistic, 463
external rewards for, 565
Scandinavian perspectives
defining change-oriented observational studies of workplaces, 138
to information system design, 129
scanners on the noun-pair lookup task, 153
scanning
for data or information as critical to success, 361
by novices or apprentices, 362
situation strategies, 362
scenarios
decision skills training in, 413
identifying formalized, 135
recognition of familiar, 475
for studying expertise, 135
schedules of reinforcement, behaviorist research about, 45
schema, 366. See also structured objects
electronic warfare situations as, 364
expert novel situations and, 640
information content of, 639
information processing without, 646
medical knowledge in more formal structures, 343
pattern matching to, 639
process representation by, 366
as prototypical states of mental models, 638
situation projections and, 636
for situation recognition, 364
schematic nature of MACRs, 52
schizophrenic episodes, 762
scholars’ guild, 5
scholastic achievement, practical intelligence thinking skills development, 626
Scholastic Aptitude Test – Mathematics, 563
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), 32
Scholastic Method, 74
scholastica disputatio, 74
Scholasticism, 74
The School of American Ballet, 497
school performance, middle school practical intelligence development program, 626
schoolhouse platform instruction, 78
school-readiness tests, abilities measured in, 590
schools
Carroll’s model of, 78–79
expertise socialization and, 756
insufficiency of, 61
learning environments in, 82
learning requirements for, 83
literacy a fundamental goal of, 396
skilled athletes development by, 9
sports training in German Democratic Republic, 756
Schumann, Robert, 157
science
as creative expertise, 765
creative thinking domain-specific expertise and, 776
creative thinking in, 775–780
as a cultural activity delimiter, 114
double helix model as creative thinking, 775
experimental evidence in, 579
expert status discernment, 747
faster start for outstanding, 329
interest in, 34
model building research, 775
social study of, 114–117
sociologist view of, 116
sociology of, 106
stratification system in, 291
of studying expertise, 87
unobserved activities directly affecting operations, 142
women’s careers in, 117
writers habits, 396
science-based approach to education, 76
Science/Math trait complex, 159, 160
scientific community, membership and expertise standards and, 746
scientific expertise
characterization of, 116
exclusionary role of, 116
exclusive role of, 116
gender and, 117
historical perspective, 114–116
rethinking and developing contemporary societies, 116
securing the authority of, 114
social and cultural authority of, 115
scientific institutions, creation of, 115
scientific knowledge, physicians reasoning and, 346
scientists
age of first work and best work, 689
background of leading, 290
choosing contemporary, 21
compared separately by Roe, 294
interviews of peer nominated eminent, 12
role from the perspective of social studies of science, 114
studies of talented, 290–291
women underrepresented, 117
scripts, actor preparation and, 492
Scripture, E. W., 554
sculpture. See also art
Calder and domain redefinition and, 784
Calder motorized mobiles, 773
as a field in the Development of Talent Project, 288
representing the arts, 295
search algorithms
in chess computer programs, 525
in chess move selection, 523
in chess-playing programs, 528
SEARCH model
computer simulations with, 529
integrating pattern recognition and search, 530
search patterns as forward-backward, 177
search phase of a problem representation, 169
search process
for the best chess move, 524
depth of following a power law of skill, 530
dissociation from pattern recognition, 529
macrostructure of chess, 528–529
search strategies or heuristics
accounting for differences in expertise, 169
in controlled vs. automatic processing, 269
variety of different, 169
search tasks
of drivers, 648
mapping and, 270
practice and, 269
search trees
progressive deepening of in chess, 529
pruning and evaluating branches of, 89
visiting the same branches repeatedly in chess, 529
second language learning, researchers relying on protocol analysis, 237
secondary events, experts better at detecting, 174
second-order factors, 589
security
child’s primary caregiver attachment and, 592
influence on Gf abilities, 592
selection procedures, multiple-hurdle approach to, 156
selective combination
as cognitive processes, 616
knowledge acquisition and, 625
in knowledge acquisition experiment, 625, 626
selective comparison
as cognitive process, 616
knowledge acquisition and, 625
in knowledge acquisition experiment, 626
Seles, Monica, 710
self-assessments, gauging individual attainment in terms of, 323
self-belief, nature of, 707
self-concept, 158, 749
effects of self-regulatory training on, 716
expertise as, 426
peer group expertise development role, 756
self-confidence, experts project extreme, 4
self-directed practice
effectiveness of, 606
quality of self-regulation during, 714
self-efficacy, 158
goal shifting and, 717, 718
as motivational belief, 709, 713
motivational component to, 158
as psychological mediator of expertise, 757
self-evaluations, 712
of drivers, 355
effects of self-regulatory training on, 715–716
in expert team research, 446
by expert teams, 446
in memory expert study, 540
as outcome of performance, 712
standards for, 712
self-explanations
improving comprehension, memory and learning, 228
instructing students to generate, 230
self-improvement, 712
self-instruction
as more effective, 253
performance and, 710
self-interest, public interest and, 110
self-monitoring
accuracy and constancy in, 707
by experts, 24, 711
in learning, 717
metacognitive, 711
self-motivational beliefs, 706, 709
self-observation. See also introspection
accuracy of, 712
mere act of engaging in, 223
during performance phase, 711
performance processes and, 710
self-organization, perceptual-motor control and, 514
self-recording, 712
goal shifting and, 718
by novices, 712
self-regulatory training and, 717
value of, 712
self-reflection
adaptive inferences and, 713
effects of self-regulatory training on, 716
goal shifting and, 718
motivational beliefs and, 707
self-regulation and, 706, 712
self-regulated learning
research on documenting effective study methods, 699
role of deliberate practice, 693
self-regulation
behavioral, 706
benefits of, 718
causal role in expertise development, 715–716
child musical practice and, 461
choice of strategy and, 714
covert, 706
cyclical phase view of, 707–713, 719
cyclical processes, 713–715
definition of, 705
dependence of expertise on, 718
environmental, 706
in expertise development, 705–719
expertise development and, 706
help from others with, 711
motivational beliefs and, 707
of music learners, 464
performance and, 710
personal elements of, 706
phases of, 707
practice as, 705
processes of, 706
processes of experts, 711
quality of, 714
role of, 718
social cognitive view of, 706–707
of software professionals, 382–383
by successful learners, 713
training, 715–718, 719
self-satisfaction, 713
goal shifting and, 717
perceptions of, 712
self-selection, process of, 298
self-talk
performance and, 710
in self-regulatory training, 718
semantic axes, 344
semantic markup languages, 99
semantic memory, 544. See also memory(ies)
as association, 557
episodic information and, 539
as an organised database, 539
organised information in, 540
semantic orienting
enhancing name recall, 549
leading to decreased forgetting in delayed recall, 549
semantic qualifiers. See SQs
semantic relations in memory chunks, 526
semantic training, effect on naming ability, 670
semantic web, 99
semi-professional work, 94
sensitivity
to cues, features and dimensions, 174
of experts driven “top down”, 174
sentences
fluency in generating, 392
forging links among, 392
translating ideas into, 390
sequence learning
attention during, 512
increased brain activity during, 662
M1 implicated in, 671
not dependent on explicit awareness, 274
paradigms, 663, 671
pre-SMA involved in, 672
SMA and pre-SMA involvement in, 672
sequential events, 273–276
sequential order, 139
sequential processing, 656
serial processing, producing interference, 676
serial RT tasks, studying sequence learning in, 273
series, measures of comprehending, 594
service orientation, professionalism, 107
service work organizations, 111
setting, 128. See also natural setting
in activity studies, 313
development in, 134
nature of, 138
selection of, 313
understanding, 128
Seven Liberal Arts, 73
sex-linked characteristics. See also females; gender; girls; men; women
mathematical expertise and, 563
SF (average undergraduate subject)
depending primarily on techniques, 545
digit span improvement by practice, 542
encoding used by, 547
Shakespeare, William, 325, 489
Sharapova, Maria, 34
Shaw, Cliff, 42
shells. See also tools
for building expert systems, 93
building expert systems using, 93
for knowledge acquisition, 204
Shereshevskii (S), 541
shore-based pilotage. See pilots (shore-based)
short-term apprehension and retrieval. See SAR
short-term memory (STM), 590
capacity constraints of, 59
capacity limits, 172
circumventing limits of, 83
declining with adulthood, 593
experts circumventing, 244
natural superiority in, 546
perceptual-motor skill learning and, 506
procedural learning and, 507, 509
of Rajan, 546
research questioning, 244
short-term working memory (STWM)
constraints on, 249
language processing and, 558
limit of the capacity of, 599
recall of elements, 600
siblings, Bloom studies failing to make comparisons of, 295
sight-reading performance, 733
Simmel, Georg, 749
Simon effect, 272, 273
Simon, Herbert
early computer models developed by, 42
pioneer of the information processing model, 42
theories in psychology taking the form of computer programs, 44
Simon-Chase theory, 524, 526–527, 685
of expertise, 11, 58
on information and short-term memory, 61
refining, 527
Simonides, 539
simplex-like effect, 155
simulated task environments, 243, 245–252
simulation
age deficits in flight, 733
assessing aviation pilots expertise, 248–250
assessing experts performance, 244–252
assessing surgery expertise, 250–252
cost savings and, 253
cost-effectiveness and efficiency of, 258
criterion improvement, 258
driving using, 142
environment type possible, 243
expense of state-of-the-art, 253
in expert team research, 445
eye movement in flight, 250
instruction delivery method, 252
learning adequacy of, 258
of medical training, 254
overview of, 244
for performance, 257–258
reducing ‘air’ training hours, 253
soccer scenario, 246
sports task performance and, 245–248
technological advances in, 258
simulation training, 252–257, 258–259
with aircraft, 253
determining transfer of, 255
effectivenss, 254
flight crews and, 445
of groups, 253
implementation of, 258
for novice surgeons, 254
‘real-world’ transfer, 256
simulation-based training paradigm, 256
simulators. See also technological aids
findings transference to the field, 256
introduction of increasingly effective, 78
role of deliberate practice, 693
simultaneous performance, untrained, 663
Singer, Mark, 397
singers
indicators of concentration and effort, 692
physiological adaptions of, 464
single domain general control architecture in the brain, 657
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 774
situation(s)
attribution theory causality and, 750
case-study scenario assessments, 619
development of prototypical, 638
diagnoses and decision making performance, 443
perceiving the deep structure of, 23
recognition of classes of, 639
representation and creative thinking, 767
tacit knowledge inventory of judgments in, 618
situation assessment by experts, 409, 410, 649
situation awareness. See SA
Situation Awareness Global Assessment Techniques (SAGAT), 645
Situation Awareness model, 406
situation awareness (SA), 52, 364
as active process, 640
Army infantry officer expertise and, 644–646
aviation pilot error and, 641–642
aviation pilot psychomotor skills and, 644
of aviation pilots, 640–644
characterization of, 442, 634–637
comprehension and course of actions issues, 646
comprehension as level of, 634
domain specificity and novel cases, 640
of drivers, 364–365
driving expertise and, 646–648
driving hazard awareness and, 648
evidence for, 16
as expertise, 633–651
expertise and, 636, 637–640
expertise role in, 637–640
by experts, 52, 406
general aviation pilots experience and, 643
goal and data driven processing in, 636
hazard prediction by experienced drivers, 648
improvement with expertise, 634
information requirement, 636
maintaining under challenging conditions, 248
measurement of, 408, 409
measuring, 365
measuring for electronic warfare technician operators, 364
mental models and, 638
model of, 635–637
novice building of, 648
novice development of, 637
novices and, 637
pattern matching and, 639
perception as level of, 634
performance requirements, 639
physical skill and expert, 644
processing mechanisms in, 636
projection as level of, 634
rating of platoon leaders by experience, 645
research as integrative, 649
role in expertise, 637–640
working memory requirements in, 636
Situation Behavioral Rating Scale (SABARS), 645
situation models, mental models giving rise to, 366
situation projection
by experts, 635
by military pilots, 641
situation prototype, recognition of, 406
situational assessment
in military decision making, 410, 411
in naturalistic decision making, 406
situational characteristics, enabling or hindering expert performance, 382
situational constraints
acquired knowledge interaction and, 615
experts showing high adaptation to, 380
situational cues
in actor long term recall, 494
in decision making, 441
expert team interpretation of, 443
situational factors, expertise attribution error and, 751
situations, expert performance as representative, 687
Skat players, 736
skaters. See also figure skaters; hockey
imagery use in teaching, 500
jump practice and, 308
overestimating difficulty level of the jumps for a practice session, 308
relationship between scheduled and actual hours of practice, 308
spending a considerable portion of practice time on mastered jump-combinations, 698
study of on-ice activities of three groups of, 307–308
skill(s). See also applied skills; clinical skills; cognitive skills
acquired, 282
age-related declines in, 728, 731
assessment, 70
building as extended effort, 691
categorizing in outcome taxonomy, 78
deliberate practice and new, 762
development, 70, 768
differences in chess, 528
elderly learning, 657
experience and information acquisition, 640
expertise as, 71
expertise as continuum of, 781
expertise prototype view and diversity of, 614
of experts, 23–27
knowledge (held in memory) mediated by, 526
maintaining through experience, 734
maintenance constraints, 731
memory, 54, 236
metacognitive, 412, 461, 464
motor, 465, 479
Mozart development of, 769
of musical autistic savants, 463
obsolescence of a risk for older adults, 737
perceptual-motor expertise and, 506
practice as learned, 461
as practice-derived in dance, 497
relative experts and, 744
residing in chunks in LTM memory, 526
selective maintenance of, 731
selectively training existing, 731
Socrates and Plato aversion to practical training, 71
Sophist educators focus on applied, 71
tacit knowledge and, 615
of teams, 441
training of actors, 490
transfer from chess to other domains, 532
skill acquisition
behavioral studies of, 53
in chess, 533
declarative phase of, 267
discontinuities in, 267
domain-relevant factors in, 324
dual processing account of, 658
durable, 266
ecological/dynamical systems approach to, 514
evaluating models of, 267
experience extent and, 11
final phase of, 267
Galton on, 684
goal-directed, 282
as gradual changes, 694
interindividual variability during, 151
laboratory studies of, 265
mastery time diffence among individual, 327
minimizing the period of effortful, 691
model for musical, 462
musical talent and, 457
phases of, 266–268
physical characteristics of perceptual-motor control and, 516
reflecting a change in processes, 267
research in laboratories, 265
self-regulation and, 718
stages, 59
tradition of, 12
traditional view of, 684–686
skill levels
dancer expert/novice research and, 499
objective and verifiable assessment of, 84
recognition-primed decision making and, 408
skill-based differences, resulting from chunking, 474
skill-by-structure interactions of experts, 463
skilled activities, performing at a functional level, 684
skilled crafts, listed by Sir Francis Bacon, 6
skilled mechanisms, specificity of, 729
skilled performance
ability determinant theory and, 459
on basic arithmetic tasks, 280
cognitive requirements and, 462
role of attention in, 359–360
situation projection in, 635
years of task-specific practice to acquire, 480
skilled performers
having all the time in the world, 475
showing fewer fixations, 476
skilled processes, for young and older architects, 733
Skinner, 77, 82
slave processing systems of working memory, 661
slips of the tongue, 509
slow learning
literature on motor, 662
phase of M1, 671
slow tracing measure, 594, 595
SMA (supplementary motor area), 672
Smithsonian Institution, 776
smooth sequential processing in the brain, 656
snooker players, 233
SOA (stimulus onset asynchrony), 277. See also ISI
soccer
anticipation as a predictor of skill, 478
awareness in game situation, 234
control processes in, 479
fixations of expert players, 477
goalkeepers prediction of shot location, 475
imagery use in teaching, 500
simulation of, 246
soccer players
ball watching by, 246
foveal vision and peripheral information extraction, 246
goal keeper observation, 476
penalty kick anticipation, 245
response speed, 246
verbalization of ball destination by, 475
visual search characteristics, 246
SOC-framework, applying to expertise, 731
social activity, 34
conversation as, 141
inherent intelligibility and accountability of, 133
social actors, workers as, 128
social and sociological factors, 128
complexity of, 120
in the development of expertise, 743–758
elites and, 757
of expert development, 33–34, 36
expert role assignment in, 750
expertise and, 34–36
in expertise development, 743–758
of experts, 743
individual mechanisms of, 118
musical excellence and, 458
rationality and, 119
selection of experts by, 131
as self-evaluation criteria, 712
social capital, 118, 754
social change, appeal to professionalism, 111
social class
acquisition of expertise and, 327
Gc correlating with, 592
social closure
process of, 106
shift from collective mechanisms of, 118
social cognition
of exertise, 706
self-regulatory competence and, 706
social constructions, decision making expertise beliefs as, 426
social context
development of talent requiring enormously supportive, 290
expert as function in, 743
of expert status, 746
of expert work in, 744
expertise and, 327
lay person vs. expert distinction, 746
in which individuals live, 105
social form
characterization, 749
differentiation from situation, 749
of expert, 744
experts as, 749–751
truth assumptions and expert as, 749
social function of experts, 744, 748
social history
development of, 571
music heritability and, 458
Social Interaction Analysis, 207
social interactions
collecting time diary data regarding, 312
as exchange, 749
in expert teams, 441
of experts, 746
observation in natural settings and, 129
retrospective interviews and, 296
security in, 592
social judgments
researchers arguing against relying on, 293
tacit knowledge and, 627
social mechanisms of expert-interaction, 749–751
social phenomena, statistics and probability theory application to, 320
Social Potency personality trait, 159
social problem solving, leadership as, 443
social sciences, 570
Social Sciences Citation Index, 621
social scientists
compared separately by Roe, 294
difficulty in articulating methods, 142
metrics used by, 141
studied by Roe, 290
social service professionalism, rising costs of, 112
social skills of programmers, 381
social technologies, materials available to develop talent, 289
Social trait complex, 159, 160
social value, learning in domains with particular,
social world, epistemic production of science and, 116
socialization
adults expertise development and, 757
in expertise development, 744
expertise development and, 755–756, 757
family role in expertise development, 756
peer group expertise development role, 756
political culture expertise development role, 757
school expertise development role, 756
social-learning theory, 624
societal press, 299
society
development of expertise taking place in, 299
expert value and, 748
legitimacy of order in, 120
music performance and, 466
rewards for expertise, 35
shaping the particularities of cognition, 137
social movements and experts, 119
trust of experts by, 754–755
Society for the Analysis of Behavior, 82
sociogram, 207
sociologists, studying science, 116
sociology, 105
expertise as viewed by, 746
of professional groups, 106–114
of professional organizations, 106
of science, 106
study of expertise in, 14
study of science, 291
time use literature on, 305
socio-technical systems
Abstraction-Decomposition matrix representing, 210
analysis and design of complex, 209
SOC-model, depicting compensation, 731
Socrates, 4–5, 70, 71
Socratic Method, 71
software
finding and correcting errors in, 379
knowledge and development of, 379
problem solving community of practice sessions and, 624
program comprehension and maintenance, 378
reuse and comprehension, 378
sport features and, 478
task complexity of, 382
software brittleness, 204
software design, 374
characteristics of expertise in, 378
comparison between experts and non-experts, 376
conceptualization of expertise, 375, 381
domain of, 374–375
empirical studies on, 375–381
experience not associated with consistently superior proficiency, 686
expertise in, 373–384
high performers verbalizing less task-irrelevant cognitions during, 383
historical context of research on expertise on, 373–374
individual differences in, 376
software designers, 376
software developers, 381
software domain, development of expertise in, 383
software engineers, 192
software professionals
differences between highly performing and moderately performing, 375
highly performing better at approaching cooperation situations, 380
work strategies recommended by exceptional, 381
software testing, 379. See also testing
soldiering, 186
solitary practice
chess skill and, 693
in sports, 693
by violinists, 306, 691, 692
solutions
as acceptable, 582
creative, 27
experts generating best, 23
historians and, 578, 582
problem representation and, 578
programmers performance times, 378
satisfactory workability of, 406
weak methods of by experts, 578
somatosensory areas
music practice and, 466
perceptual-motor skill acquisition and, 508
somatosensory processing, 655
somatotopic map, 656
songs, 771
Sophists, 71, 72
sounds, abilities comprehending patterns among, 590
sources
differential use and interpretation of, 575–576
in historical source analysis, 572
as a historical source heuristic, 572
in history, 571
in modern historical method, 571
The Sources of a Science of Education, 76
Space Fortress game, 278
space, region of, 57
spacial cognition, neurological damage and, 559
spatial ability as an age-sensitive measure, 732
spatial navigation, automotive, 673
spatial occlusion of certain elements, 476
spatially distinct prefrontal activity, 665
spatial-visual reasoning, 32
Spearman’s theory of g, 591, 604, 606
specialists, 46
diagnoses by, 235
experts as, 748
hypothesis generation by, 27
professional work outsourcing and, 752
skills as expertise, 46
specialization
by field, 76
by historians, 573
specialized labor, 747
specialized processing regions in the brain, 656
specification problem, 42
specificity
of learning, 666
sport research and, 482
spectra, region of, 57
spectrum of talents, created by Bloom, 295
speech
neural activity of, 226
perceptual-motor control and, 510
versus written fluency, 398
speech errors
analysis of, 509
slips of tongue, 509
tip of the tongue phenomena, 58
speed of operations, changing with practice, 53
speed of processing as IQ related, 548
speeded category verification task, 175
speeded performance
experts under, 56
versus non-speeded performance, 734
ubiquity of negative age-effects in, 726
spelling, mechanics of, 398
spirometer, 89
spoonerisms, perceptual-motor performance and, 509
sports
age for top performance in, 330
age-performance studies, 329
characteristics of experts in, 305
cognitive nature of the expert advantage in, 475–482
as continuous and time-dependent, 472
deliberate practice and, 237, 383, 693
differences among, 472
evolution of simulation, 255–257
expert performance in, 16, 471–483
historical roots of the expertise approach in, 474–475
increases in performance over time, 690
interactive, 473
knowledge and textual descriptions, 51
meta-analysis of findings, 482–483
performance and practice in, 693
as a performance area, 472–474
performance-based contracts, 735
physical versus developmental causes underlying performance differences, 481
political culture expertise development role, 757
practices as a predictor of skill-based differences, 481
retrospective reports and diaries of time use, 306
roles in, 473
school training in German Democratic Republic, 756
simulation to training perceptual-cognitive skills, 255–257
situation awareness expertise in, 633
software features differentiating skill across, 478
virtual reality in, 247, 248
SQs (semantic qualifiers), 344
squash, 475
S-R theory. See stimulus-response models
SRC (stimulus-response compatibility) effects, 270, 271
stable states, expert performance acquisition of, 694
stamp collector, 235
Standard Operating Procedures documents, analysis of, 216
standards
challenging, 712
created by communities of practice, 290
Stanislavski, Constantine, 490
Stanislavski system, 490
“Star Wars”, 179
Stasser, Garold, 750
state (government)
captured by professions, 109
compulsory education of, 75
forced to cede a great portion of institutional change to experts, 120
involvement in the training of expert performers, 9
professional power of regulatory responsibility, 113
trying to redefine professionalism, 111
states, 147
created by the application of operators to elements, 168
effects influencing the reliability of a test, 148
physiological differences as physiological or cognitive, 694
static slide presentations, recreating aspects of a task, 257
statistical controls, spurious associations and, 325
statistical models, expert judgments vs., 41
statistical techniques
for correlational data, 332
enabling the application of, 477
Statistics Canada, 304
steady hand, calling into question the importance of, 348
steel, age of (1895–1940), 186–188
Sternbeg, Robert J., 615
Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT), 618
stimuli
determining which response to make to, 270
experts’ superiority for representative, 11
followed by a behavior and by a consequence, 82
mapping left and right to left and right responses, 271
novel, conjunctively defined, 270
stimulus identification, 475
stimulus locations in a lopsided diamond arrangement, 275
stimulus materials for which prior experiences was minimized, 49
stimulus onset asynchrony. See SOA
stimulus set, visuospatial versus verbal, 271
stimulus-response associations, results consistent with an explanation in terms of, 276
stimulus-response compatibility effects. See SRC effects
stimulus-response configurations, 275
stimulus-response models, difficulty in trying to account for complex human processes, 43
stimulus-response patterns, expertise as the development of many, 78
stimulus-response sequences, dissociating, 275
stimulus-to-response associations versus category-to-response, 272
STM. See short-term memory
stop rule, 189
stories as a memory retrieval structure, 547
STORM, Concept Maps stitched together in, 212
story mnemonic as memory technique, 542
The Story of Civilization, 73
story-telling. See also knowledge-telling
social-psychological function of, 137
trans-generational transmission of the wisdom of elders via, 203
strain, physical, 695
Strasberg, Lee, 490, 494
strategic differences, domain-specific knowledge structures and, 478
strategic goals, 713
strategic memorisers, 545
mean z scores on tasks, 546
percentage recalled/recognised by, 546
performance of, 545
strategic planning, 530, 709
strategic tasks, 545
strategies. See also cognitive strategies
alternate causing reorganization of tasks, 658
bottleneck as, 277
central to human learning and problem solving, 226
changing during an experimental session, 231
developed to satisfy task goals, 282
differences in experts and novices, 367
discrepancies between observations and reported, 223
employed by experts across divergent scenarios, 257
experts selecting fewer, 368
flexibly used by experts, 675
managing the cognitive load on working memory, 399
metacognitive, 57
more appropriate chosen by experts, 24
shifts and skill acquisition discontinuity, 268
validity of general descriptions of, 231
street experts, inflexibility in the use of strategies, 26
stress
attention in decision making and, 432
impact on experts vs. non-experts, 382
musical performance from memory and, 463
as situation awareness model factor, 635
situation diagnoses and decision making performance, 443
strong methods, 43
in AI research, 90
providing certainty, 577
Stroop-like interference task, 526
structural changes
in brain tissue size, 653
music training inducing in the brain, 674
structural equation modeling, 728
structural game sequences, 478
structural research
of abilities indicative of intelligence, 588
on expertise, 598
Gf-Gc theory and, 589–592
structured interviews
methods of, 205
verbal reporting as, 176
yield of, 206
structured objects, 92. See also schema
Strumilin, S.G., 304
students
achievement variation in, 79
aptitude, 78
expertise in, 79
intelligent tutoring systems use by, 46
knowledge, 211
medical, 25
peer feedback incorporation by, 26
practical intelligence development program, 626
practice implementation by, 706
preparation, 298
self-views of, 289
study environment for, 711
teaching to work like experts, 297
study environment, 711
study methods, consistent with deliberate practice predicting achievement, 699
STWM. See short-term working memory
styles
of acting, 489
expressing prewriting strategies as, 393
recycling in art, 783
stylized activity list, 309
subassemblies, 94
subcomponents, 282
subject matter expertise, decision making expertise and, 426
subject matter experts
instructor as, 70
judgment accuracy of, 432
substantive decision making procedures and, 433
value issue proficiency and, 434
subject matter knowledge of historians, 581
subjective ratings, using during practices to evaluate quality, 314
subjectivity
of activity, 312
decision making expertise research and, 423
subject-performed tasks (SPT)
actor recall and, 496
dance movements and, 499
sub-optimal moves, diagnosing the source of, 697
subordinate category, 176
subordinate level
experts categorizing at, 176
objects, 179
subsequent learning, 80
subsidiary study by Roe, 294
substantive variables, historiometrics study of composers and, 328
subtasks of a dual-task, 663
subtext, 572
generation by historians, 581
by historian specialists, 573
success
ethnic group and social, 757
as a poor predictor, 341
summary statistics, 141
superior memory
evidence of, 546
main methods used in the study of, 540
most striking examples as strategy-dependent, 546
neurological basis of, 548–549
organization and, 244
scientific study of, 540
superior performance. See also reproducibly superior performance
as domain specific, 10
mechanisms identification, 49
objective reproducibility of, 687
psychometric factors, 49
social and experience-based indicators and, 686
superiority as psychological mechanism, 757
superiority of expertise, limited to a specific domain, 25
superiority of experts, found to be specific to specific aspects, 10
superordinate categories, 175
supervision of beginning musicians, 461
supervisor ratings, tacit knowledge and, 622
supervisory control, 188
characterized by monitoring displays, 186
resource management and, 362
unobservable cognitive activities of, 189
supervisory role, knowledge and cognition importance in, 188
supplementary motor area. See SMA
supply side theory of professionalism, 109
support, required for expertise, 35
surface features, undergraduate problems sorting, 175
surgeons
examining the co-ordination patterns of, 251
expert visually fixating upon the target, 251
study of actions within a surgery, 52
training novice through simulation, 254
surgery
compared to chess, 697
minimally invasive or minimal access, 254
procedure performance and success, 349
surgical expertise
as acquired and highly local, 347
visuospatial abilities and, 348
surgical intensive care unit, 445
surgical performance
assessment of, 347
correlates of, 348
surgical procedures, points of transition in, 251
surgical simulation
assessing expert skill via, 250–252
developments in, 347
precision and speed of experts and, 251
surgical skills, learning and transfer of, 347–348
surgical tasks, learning transfer, 347
surgical teams, 446
surgical trainees, 348
surgical training, 254
surrogate experiences, 412
surrogate experts, 93
Survey Research Center, 304
surveys
before, during, and after observation, 140
protocol analysis and, 237
sustained maintenance practice, benefits of for older experts, 731
Susukita, T., 541
swimmers
representing psychomotor activities, 295
years required to earn a place on the Olympic team, 289
swimming
as a field in the Development of Talent Project, 288
technique focus in, 709
syllogisms, 594
symbol manipulation
defining efficient, 89
intelligent behavior as, 93
symbol system, 57
symbolic algebra, 90
symbolic inference by a computer, 87
symbolic knowledge, 92
symbols and symbol structures, computers processing, 42
symphonies, 324
synaesthesia, 541
synergy, 440
syntactic structures, writing effectiveness and, 392
synthetic environments, 243
system complexity, situation awareness and, 637
system components, novice knowledge and seeking and, 637
system couplings, 480
system design, 138
system experts, support role of, 752
system interface as situation awareness model factor, 635
system states, 638
systematic observation
in expertise research, 312, 313–316
micro analysis of activity and, 304
in micro-analysis of time use, 312–316
in structured settings of activities, 312
systems
ideal states as goals in, 636
mental models and, 638
in situation awareness model, 635
systems approach
to instructional design, 81
to task analysis, 188
teaching for troubleshooting, 195
systems design
gulf with task analysis, 199
naturalistic decision making as basis for, 412
naturalistic decision making in, 413–414
systems engineering, 77
The Systems Engineering of Training, 77
Systems Theory, 81
systems thinking in military-related human resources issues, 77
Szalai, Alexander, 304
table tennis, 248, 480
tacit articulation work, 135
tacit knowledge, 725
acquisition, 623
acquisition and reflection techniques,
acquisition enhancement, 626
acquisition of, 616, 625–626
case-study scenarios assessments, 619–620
characterization, 615
communities of practice and, 623–625
conceptualization and measurement, 627
as critical in everyday life, 615
decision skills training and, 412
definition, 615
distinctiveness, 621
driver safety performance and, 623
experiential nature of, 615
expert use of, 628
expertise and, 613–623, 632
expertise development and sharing of, 623
expertise enhancement and, 623–627
expertise research and, 614
as explicable, 92
future research on practical research and, 627
intelligence domain inventories of, 621
job knowledge and, 616, 617
mathematical modeling and, 628
measurement and, 618–620
measuring, 725
methods for uncovering, 12
modification and updating of, 628
personality and motivation and, 617
practical intelligence acquisition and, 616
practically intelligent behavior and, 615
procedural knowledge, 617
psychological constructs and, 616–617, 621
research findings, 620–623
scientific reach of, 216
Tacit Knowledge for Military Leadership Inventory, 622
tacit knowledge inventories
description, 618–619
domain specific knowledge in, 621
job knowledge and, 621
scores, 621
Tacit-Knowledge Inventory for Managers (TKIM), 618, 619, 622
tactical combinations, solutions in blindfold chess, 531
takeoffs, effects of simulation training, 253
talent. See also innate factors
channeled by interests, 34
in chess mastery, 532
development as a process of learning, 289
exceptional musical, 457
expertise and inherited, 613
long-term process of developing, 289
Mozart and, 769
musical aptitude tests and, 457
not randomly distributed across space and time, 327
practice in music and, 459
role of versus experience, 31
superior achievement and, 767
tap as sound-based art, 498
target behaviors, operationalization of, 313
target information, selecting for systematic observation, 313
task analysis. See also behavioral task analysis
alternative procedures specification and, 229
alternative sequences prediction, 229
artificial intelligence developments and, 191
behavioral, 205
behaviorial functional validity and, 313
case studies on, 193–199
cognitive form of, 188
decision making decomposition, 187
definitions of, 185
differences in, 185
hierarchy construction and, 78
historical overview of, 186–193
improvement goal of, 186
Miller’s method for, 188
systems design and, 199
technological developments and methods of, 192
think aloud protocols, 229
task analysts, agenda issue awareness and, 198
task environment as situation awareness model factor, 635
task force group, 129
task interest
goal shifting and, 718
as motivational belief, 707, 709
task knowledge, self-regulation and, 719
task management
aviation pilots and, 644
aviation pilot situation awareness and, 642
coordination and, 666
overlapping processing to resources, 663
pilot situation awareness and cockpit, 643
task orientation of leaders and team performance, 448
task performance. See also performance
attention in perceptual-motor expertise and, 513
contextual aspects of, 405
determinants of, 155
by experts, 405
by individuals in expert teams, 440
outcome aligned with expert, 81
performance gain and initial, 150
physical and cognitive skill relationship, 644
physical capacity and, 514, 515
repetition of, 506
thinking aloud and, 228
trait predictors of initial, 155
task requirements, 188
task structure
diagnostic strategy applied as, 194
procedures and human engineering, 188
requirements and, 188
task-relevant materials, temporary storage of, 558
tasks. See also complex tasks; constrained processing tasks
acquired linked to performance, 693
as activity driven, 135
actor expertise in subject-performed, 496–497
adaptation to constraints on, 382, 463
automatic performance of, 361
automaticity and expertise, 639
aviation student pilot situation awareness, 642
categorical decomposition, 188
complex reasoning and simple memory, 589
decomposing into subtasks, 187
design differences and activation dynamics, 665
discrimination difficulty and learning specificity, 666
domains of, 88
eliminating limitations on multiple, 276–281
encoding instructions, 267
essence of a given type of expertise type, 231
everyday performance study, 170
as expertise, 569
expertise specific to, 96
generalized integration of, 59
goals and strategie of complex, 282
historian’s, 571–580
idealized functional representations of, 135
as intrinsic to domains, 170
knowledge a dominant source of variance in, 47
learning strategies for, 710
music-related, 674
non-strategic, 545
novice search, 659
performance means and practice,
physical activities descriptions, 189
positions consisting of, 187
practice with, 271
seeking out demanding, 694
selectivity as a means of adaptation, 55
simplification and real-world demands, 243
simulating salient characteristics of, 258
skilled performance, 663
sorting, 175–176
sub-domain and sport demands, 474
subtasks as simple, 663
switching in the brain, 656
taxes working memory after learning, 32
visuospatial span study as sequential, 663
task-specific processing regions
continuing to activate,
supporting task performance, 660
taskwork, identification by expert teams, 449
taste as a decision makers target, 433
tax accountants, 26
tax advisors, 95
taxi drivers
brain plasticity in adulthood, 548
as spatial navigation experts, 673
structural brain differences based on acquired experience, 673
visuo-spatial knowledge, 547
taxonomists, 180
Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 186–187
teacher/coach-directed practice, 606
teachers. See also coaches
behaviors of expert, 313
elite performers support by, 691
exceptional, 13
as expert, 75
of expertise, 61
as expertise, 70
experts seeking out, 61
at the focal point of all education, 70
independence from feedback of, 694
practice activities and, 698
self-control strategies, 711
videotaped classroom lesson viewing by, 173
teaching
child thinking skills instruction, 626
goal-setting strategies in, 708
imagery use in dance, skating, and soccer, 500
mathematical expertise and, 565
removing from the exclusive control of domain experts, 76
teaching faculty, expertise and specialization among, 73
teaching machines, 45
learner question presentation control, 77
in programmed learning, 45
teaching methods in decision skills training, 412, 413
team members
dynamic factors of, 441
individual technical expertise, 440
individuals as, 440
integration of new, 449
sense of team trust and efficacy, 448
stress performance of, 443
taskwork and teamwork skills, 441
team performance
adaptive, 442
leadership and, 443
phases of, 442
recursive processes in adaptive, 442
team processes
expert team shared mental models and, 446
shared cognition as effectiveness precursor, 443
team regulation, models of, 442
teams
adaptation framework illustration, 442–448
adaptation input-throughput-output model, 442
assessment and learning by, 442
cognition resource pooling, 442
Concept Maps construction, 212
decision making and adaptation by, 441–443
decision making in, 441
deliberate practice by, 693
distinguishing features of, 439
effectiveness and teamwork by, 441
effectiveness components, 441
expert performance, 439–453
expertise as adaptive creation, 441
functional and shared roles of leaders, 443
meetings, 380
as more than a group of individuals, 474
relative expert assignment, 752
skills of, 441
software design and programming in, 374
teamwork
identification by expert teams, 449
input-process-output models of, 441
as skill, 441
team effectiveness and, 441
technical experts in expert teams, 441
technical systems, Abstraction-Decomposition matrix representing, 210
technique-oriented strategies
selection of, 714
used by experts, 709
techniques
in actor training, 490
in dance as indispensable, 497
deliberate practice and new, 762
development, 768
expertise and the acquisition of, 347–348
extension and creative advance, 782–783
focus of experts, 714
memory superiority and, 545
outcome goals and, 709
painting methods in modern art, 774
technological aids. See also simulators
in expertise learning, 413
technology
creative thinking in, 775
leverage points and ideas for new aiding, 215
teenagers in chess competitions, 524
telegraphic skill, 474
telegraphy
acquisition and automatization in phases, 685
interview of students, 225
performance improvement, 266
telephone numbers, 545
tele-robotic scientific process, 133
template theory
chess education and training derived from, 532
chunking theory leading to, 527
direct implementation of, 530
prediction of chess player strengths, 527
templates, perceptual chunks and, 527
temporal dimensions, expert learning environment description, 315
temporal lobe, 533, 655, 668
temporal location, 314
temporal occlusion, 245, 476
temporality, 137
ten year rule, 327, 398, 480, 685, 689. See also time; years of experience
Beethoven and, 784
Calder and, 774
creative achievement and, 785
creative thinking and, 768–769
dance skills acquisition, 498
exceptions to, 689
expertise and, 613
extended effort required for expertise, 16
for GO, 603
international chess and, 686
as minimum, 601
Mozart and, 462, 769
musical skills development and, 462
Picasso and, 772
writers and, 399
writing expertise and, 398–399
tennis
contextual cues removal, 477
decisions and response time as expert advantage in, 475
eye movements of skilled performers, 476
as a field in the Development of Talent Project, 288
observing expert advantage, 476
physically responding to a virtual serve, 256
response time of, 477
simulation demonstrating response times, 246
video-based anticipation simulation system, 247
tennis players
expert anticipating shots, 697
eye-movements of expert, 697
negative outbursts of, 710
novice using a film-based anticipation simulation, 256
perceptual-motor expertise in, 513
representing psychomotor activities, 295
skilled fixating on central areas of the opponent’s body, 246
tension view of expertise and creativity, 766
Terrain Analysis Database, 218
terroir, 358
testable models
expert systems as, 87
tools for building, 88
testing. See also software testing
of computer programs, 374
test-retest procedures
for an omnibus IQ test, 155
reliability estimation, 148
tests
alternate forms of, 149–150
of human intelligence, 606
learning during, 149
of practical intelligence, 618–619
reliability of, 148
of situational-judgments and tacit knowledge, 618
text production
cognitive demands of, 393
development phase, 390
as a non-linear sequence, 391
processes of, 390
texts
comprehansion protocol analysis, 237
drafting a, 390
idea translation in production, 390
produced by children, 398
representation of, 572
reviewing, 390
writing extended for publication, 389
thalamus, 656
theatre, 489
forms, 491
games, 490
productions, 491
Thematic Apperception Test, 290
themes, important to essayists, 391
THEN part of a production rule, 92
theorem proving in AI, 90
theoretical frameworks
focused on attaining expert performance, 10–14
of studies, 295
theoretical instruction, gap with actual practice, 195
theoretical issues, cutting across different domains of expertise, 16
theory of eminence, 556
theory-driven work, 295
Thespis, 489
think-aloud method of verbal reports, 224
think-aloud problem solving
task reintroduction, 191
yield of, 206
think-aloud protocols, 176
analysis of chess experts’, 696
chess move choice, 528
concurrent, 176
debugging time needs, 379
given by historians and history students, 177
of a good club chess player, 234
historians processing written sources, 572
on historical sources, 572
older experts engaged in less extensive search, 730
of Patel and Green, 342
on planning the selection of moves for a chess position, 233
sub-vocal verbalization expressions, 226
thought verbalization model, 237
verbalization and validity in, 229
verbalized information validity in, 228–230
think-aloud study of Watson, 226
thinking. See also creative thinking
Aristotle on, 224
child development and, 398
child thinking skills, 626
concrete events and, 398
empirical experimental studies and theoretical models of human thought processes, 42
of exceptional experts, 22
expertise devilment and, 623
in hypothetical, abstract terms, 398
methodology for eliciting valid data on, 227–231
neural activity and speech apparatus, 226
non-reactive verbal reports of, 227–228
protocol analysis of, 41
tacit knowledge acquisition reflection,
thinking skills
academic achievement and instruction in practical, 626
dissociation with perceptual-memory, 523
thinking styles, teaching early, 297
thinking time, decreasing only marginally affecting chess blunders, 529
Third International Maths and Science Survey (TIMSS), 563
third-order abilities, 589
Thomas, Lewis, 394
thought processes
historical development of verbal reports on, 224–227
indicators of, 229
providing valid verbalizations of, 224
reflection on, 55
self-observation changing the content of, 223
thought sequences
recall of past specific, 230
verbal descriptions of, 224
thoughts
creative, 758
imageless, 225
overt verbalizations and, 227
reoccuring with considerable frequency, 224
in thinking skills and problem solving, 626
verbalized sequences compared to intermediate results, 229
verbalizing spontaneously emerging, 228
Thucydides, 570
TIE (Typical Intellectual Engagement) personality trait, 159
time, 296. See also ten year rule
behavioral trait, 588
developing exceptional abilities, 289
expertise acquisition and, 79
expertise studies relating to, 297
as a game constraint, 473
inescapable dimension of human activity, 303
lags, 663
as an orthogonal dimension, 139
providing different amounts to learn, 80
region of, 57
thought-verbal report interval, 229
time budget methods
activity categories analysis, 311
in expertise research, 305–308
time diaries, 308
analysing, 311
in a diary survey, 310
templates,
time paradox, 475
time pressure, 382
chess and, 529
recognition-primed decision making and, 408, 411
time sampling, 315–316
time sharing
pilots with non-pilots, 360
between two areas while dual-tasking, 663
time stress, naturalistic decision making and, 403
time study by Taylor, 187
time use, 303
direct observation of practice in figure skating, 307
eminence attainment and, 305
estimates of on-ice sessions, 308
historical perspective research, 304–305
literature on, 305
macro analysis of, 308–312
management, 710, 711
method data, 305
method reliability, 307
methodology advances, 304
methods of, 305
micro-analysis of, 312–316
multi dimensional data related to, 312
during practice by skaters, 308
research on, 304
timeframe for expertise across domains, 305
timelines
data collected in, 141
scenarios yielded by CDM, 209
timing capacity, professional musicians and, 727
tip of the tongue phenomena, 58. See also speech errors
TLC computer system, 48
Tomoyori, Hideaki, 542
tonality, 463
tonatopic map, 656
tools
for encoding and conceptualizing expertise, 97
expert systems construction, 93
top-down and breadth-first manner of design decomposition, 377
top-down processing component of expert knowledge structures, 366
total system in HCI research, 131
touchdown (of an aircraft), precision in, 258
tough cases
analysis of, 217
expert reasoning and, 205
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 772
tournament play, 533–534
Tower of Hanoi, 168, 226
toys, 773
traces, accessing extant and non-extant, 54
tracings, short correlated with fast matching, 594
TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control) task, 153
trade associations, 624
tradeoffs
as cardinal decision issue, 434
in decision making process, 428
risk taking and, 434
Traditionalism personality trait, 159
traffic signs, 360
traffic violations, 358
train engineers, training and certification requirements, 358
trained objects, IT increasing in responsiveness to, 669
training. See also music training
activity changes, 695
for actors, 490, 491
adaptive, 662
attributes acquired during, 10
in chess, 532–533
as the coach’s responsibility in sport, 255
content delivery, 257
course component orientation, 195
in dance technique, 497
in decision skills, 412–413
difficult stimuli use, 279
distinctive features emphasis, 268
domain-specific and meta-cognitive knowledge focus, 384
expert performance management approach, 384
expert performance promotion by, 383
experts seeking, 61
Galton’s acknowledgement of, 10
genius and exceptional talent associated with distinctive, 327
individual subcomponents versus entire task, 278
injuries from, 699
international competition prerequisite, 235
international competitions level requirement, 235
memory and, 549
microstructure of, 237
for modern dance, 498
multi-phase self-regulatory, 715–718
naturalistic decision making and, 412, 414
older adults requirements, 734
performance measure linkage, 686
physical changes in, 498
Picasso creative thinking case study, 772
resources access, 691
simulation for, 252–257, 258–259
social identity development and, 756
sophisticated requirements, 78
for supervisory tasks, 189
years required for international acclaim, 689
years since formal, 324
training environments
apprentice pilots and, 252
best performers production and, 691
scarcity of optimal, 699
training history, differences in activation dynamics, 665
training methods
of actors, 490
for ballet, 498
complex cognitive mechanisms acquisition, 61–62
for performance, 690
performance improvement, 768
training tasks
feedback and, 61
sequentially, 692
training techniques of experts, 17
trait complexes, 159–160
difference predictors, 160
as domain development impediment, 162
fluid intellectual abilities and, 159
knowledge development using, 162
opportunity prediction with, 161
trait families, variance among, 159
trait predictors, 154
traits, 147
expertise set of inner, 72
individual, 158
major families of, 155
professional work characterization and, 108
psychological, 147
shared variance among, 159
synergistic, 159
transactive knowledge, 753
transactive memory
expertise attribution and, 753–757
as organizational, 753
transfer designs technique, 266
transfer effectiveness
across modalities, 273
in the PCATD 5 group, 253
training time, 258
transfer techniques, determining conditions of skill generalization, 269
transfer-of-training from existing knowledge to new knowledge, 161
transformations, following a pattern of rhythms of learning, 289
transition points
experts spending less time during, 251
negotiation of, 297
transitional phase of skill acquisition, 267
transparency of expert systems, 89
transportation
environment consistently changing, 358
experience in, 358–359
expertise and, 355–369
expertise effects, 368
price of the complexity of, 358
research in, 358
successful theories of expertise in as fundamentally cognitive, 368
transportation domain
defining expertise in, 355
nature of tasks in, 355–358
traumatic experiences, acquisition of extraordinary expertise and, 327
treatment
professional work outsourcing, 752
professional work task, 751
tree-traversal process in perceptual-motor control, 510
trials, expert witnesses and, 755
triarchic theory
on expertise, 614
human intelligence and, 616
school performance enhancement program, 626
Trivium, 70, 73
troubleshooting
changing courses in, 195
cognitive task analysis of, 196
practice in, 196
practice systematic approach, 196
structured approach by experts, 193
task structure, 195
teaching a systematic approach to, 195
training case studies, 193–196
trust
creation of social, 751
expert team collective, 448
expert witnesses and, 755
of experts by society, 754–755
interpersonal risk taking in expert teams, 444
as power and social capital, 754
as society context, 753
truth
assumption in expert social form, 749
presumption for experts, 750
TSR (fluency of retrieval from long-term memory), 590
TSR (tertiary storage/retrieval), 604
abilities increasing with acculturation, 605
abilities indicating fluency in accessing information, 605
increasing in adulthood, 595–596
indicating facility in retrieving knowledge, 596
tuition, 462
twins
mathematical abilities and, 563
reliable estimates of heritability, 725
two-choice spatial tasks, 272
two-flap Z-plasty, 347
typicality
effect of, 346
sense of, 405
typing
age-comparative studies on, 728
as a habitual activity, 697
increasing by exerting full concentration, 698
laboratory task capturing superior performance in, 688
perceptual-motor expertise and, 509, 510
research on instruction in, 697
skill of acquisition and automatization in, 685
standardized measure of, 697
typists, 53, 687
deliberate practice by, 696
eye-hand spans in older, 731
molar-equivalence-molecular-decomposition approach applied to, 730
perceptual processing speed of superior, 697
skills maintenance by older expert, 731
speed prediction, 157
UK Basic Skills Agency, 553
uncertainty
in decision making, 424
expert knowledge use and, 108
of inference, 93
management of, 406
reasoning under, 96
reasoning with, 93
reduction by experts, 751
rough estimates of, 96
value tradeoff and, 434
unconscious
inference reliance on, 511
influences and tacit knowledge, 615
underadditive interaction, 277
under-constrained decisions, 56
understanding phase
adaptive team expertise and, 440
beyond encoding, 169
as data integration, 638
of a problem representation, 168
of a representation, 168
Unified Modeling Language (UML), 199
unit. See structured object
unitization, 268, 269, 270
units of analysis
for directors and films, 330
examining data within and across, 311
for measuring more knowledge, 178
for modeling work, 137
universities
knowledge accumulation goal, 5
in medieval Europe, 5, 72–74
as novel institutions in medieval Europe, 70
segmentation into departments, 84
University of Alberta, jazz dance expert/novice research, 499
University of Missouri, journalism school, 397
university professors, contrasting on a drawing versus writing task, 395
unofficial history, 576
unstructured interviews
by computer scientists building expert systems, 205
yield of, 206
untrained task performance, compared to trained, 665
Upper Limit Construct, 75
urban planning, time use literature on, 305
usual performance versus maximal, 734
utility
decision behavior and, 434
judgment process and, 404
maximization of expected in decisions, 425
value tradeoffs and multiattribute, 434
utility analysis, multi-attribute, 411
utility of effort, 158
V1, visual processing locus, 666
validity
issues of, 295–296
measurement, 148, 149–150
verbal reports and, 230–231
verbalizations and, 229
value(s)
anticipation expertise in, 434
as cardinal decision issue, 433–434
creativity and, 762
decision coherence standard and, 425
decision results and, 423
exchange creation of, 750
expertise in anticipation of, 434
of families as subcultures, 756
of innovation vs. creativity,
multiattribute utility theory and, 434
variability in movements as a distinguishing characteristic of experts, 480
variables
alterable, 292
effective harnessing of non-functional, 480
in historiometrics, 323–324
variance truncation, subject selection and, 323
varied mapping. See VM
velocity-dependent forces, resisting, 507
ventral occiptico-temporal cortex
activated when viewing pictures of objects, 668
object recognition in, 669
verbal abilities assessment, 618
verbal information
analyses of, 177
in a learning outcome taxonomy, 78
Verbal Information learning outcome, 80
verbal IQ, less important than relevant knowledge, 51
verbal n-back task, activation decreases after practice, 662
verbal protocols
of chess players, 232
of children and adults in sports, 479
measures extracted from, 528
on writing, 392
verbal recall, ballet experts and, 498
verbal reports, 176
applications of, 235
cognitive processes changes and, 228
collection in context, 176
as a contrived task, 176–178
elicitation of non-reactive, 227–228
experimental validation of, 237
familiar intrinsic tasks and, 177
historical development of, 224–227
method to elicit, 224
methods in musical practice and performance research, 460
validity and accuracy of retrospective, 227
validity of, 229, 479
validity problems of, 230–231
verbal retrieval by actors, 494
verbal tasks, recall superiority in, 172
verbalization
interfering with reasoning, 216
participants’ thought processes, 228
reflecting the participants’ spontaneous thoughts, 231
revealing sequences of thoughts, 229
validity of while thinking aloud, 228–230
versatility, 323
vertical activity list in a stylized activity log, 309
very large knowledge bases, 98–99
video data, inventorying, 140
video ethnography, 130
video recording, hot spots for systematic, 140
video-based simulations
pressure-sensitive, movement response system of, 246
salient task demands, 257
tennis use, 247
vigilance
by aviation student pilot situation awareness errors, 642
decision need and, 429
vignettes in tacit knowledge inventories, 618
violin students, studies undertaken with three groups of, 306
violinists
average performance and, 81
compared to naval aviators, 81
cortical representation of fingers, 674
diaries for studying, 131
diary use by, 691
M1 activation for left-hand individual finger movements, 674
practice hours, 601
solitary practice time, 692
time on deliberate practice, 691
Virtual Football Trainer, 248
virtual reality, 243
actor scenario performance in, 495
salient task demands, 257
simulators, 254
sport use, 247
sports environment simulation, 248
virtual reality systems, systems, 258
virtual tool, 251
virtue, 71
vision, training improving, 666
visual anthropology, 129–130
visual area in the right mid-fusiform gyrus, 667
visual arts
creativity in, 772–775
domain specific expertise in, 775
visual coding of manipulables in calculation learning, 559
visual cues, experts using, 476
visual images, 225
visual memory, 171, 559
visual object expertise, IT neurons implicated in, 669
visual perception, perceptual-motor control and, 511
Visual Perception personality trait, 159
visual processing (Gv), 590
beginning in occipital cortex, 667
locus of initial, 666
regions, 666
visual searches, 360, 361–362
CM and VM tasks, 270
memory task, 269
perceptual structure, 476–477
visual search patterns
depending on defensive or offensive nature of the decision, 477
as relatively domain specific, 477
training for, 676
visual spans, larger for expert chess players, 525
visual system of the brain, 655
visual tasks, mapping and, 272
visual type, memory of the, 554
visual variation, VWFA insensitive to, 670
Visual Word Form Area. See VWFA
visual working memory in computation, 559
visual-field experiment with male chess players, 533
visuo-spatial ability
surgeons and, 348
surgical expertise and, 348
transfer task and, 347
visuo-spatial information, working memory slave processing system, 661
visuo-spatial knowledge, 547
visuo-spatial representations, memory experts use, 549
visuospatial span study, practice and, 662
visuo-spatial tasks
delayed match-to sample practice for, 662
negatively affecting problem solving, 531
visuo-spatial tests, surgical trainee hand motion and, 348
visuo-spatial working memory in blindfold chess, 531
VM (varied mapping), 269, 659
vocabulary size, writing effectiveness and, 392
vocational interest themes, matching with job characteristics, 158
volleyball
dynamic film sequences in, 245
occluding portions of the serve, 476
player goal setting by, 708
recalling patterns of play in, 245
self-regulation in, 714, 715
skilled players better able to predict a serve, 476
VP
encoding used by, 547
natural ability and, 545
nouns and verbs recall, 542
superior memory demonstration, 541
VWFA (Visual Word Form Area), 670
consistently activated across word tasks and writing systems, 670
insensitive to lexical properties of words, 670
insensitivity to visual variation, 670
lesions resulting in impairments in word recognition, 670
phonological training modulating, 671
Wagner, Richard K., 615
WAIS. See Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
waiter superior memory, 237
walking, 515
Wallace, Irving, 710
wargaming, 410
The Waste Land, 399
Watson, James, 775–776, 782, 784
Watson, John, 226
wayfinding, anterior hippocampus and, 673
WDA (Work Domain Analysis), 209–213
aviation incident reports and, 215
documents study and, 210
fitting in knowledge and skills, 217
initiating, 215
weak methods, 43
acquired as language structures, 577
in AI research, 90
not leading to specific conclusions, 577
of reasoning and problem solving, 577
weakness, correction and function preservation, 698
weather conditions, pilots recognition of, 364
weather cues, viewing, 363
weather forecasting
method model concept, 217
perception of satellite infra-read image loops, 173
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, 547
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 32
weekly training activities, 695
Well-Being personality trait, 159
well-structured and deliberate practice. See deliberate practice
well-structured domains, 569
what-if queries in CDM, 209
“what-if ” scenarios in simulated systems, 78
what-this-will-mean-for-me-later-on, 136
whole-game training, 279
whole-task training, 278
why-questions, 230
wildland fire fighters, 26
Wilkins, Maurice, 776, 782
Williams sisters in tennis, 562
wine experts, performance compared to regular wine drinkers, 686
wine tasting, 268
with whom coding in a time diary, 312
WJ-R, full set of achievement tests of, 597
WM. See working memory
women, MIT report on the difficult position of, 117
Woods, Tiger, 562
words
actor memory access to, 491
brain regions associated with processing, 670
bursts of generated by writers, 392
experts processing of, 671
meaning inference by actors, 492
reading, 670–671
sequences of images, 390
tests for lists of, 545
transcription into written characters, 390
work
activity organized to appear rational, 134
context, 135
cultures, 208
decomposing into formal diagrams of goals and methods, 130
environments, 736
experience, 758
of experts in social context, 744
feeling lost in, 395
how to model, 138
how to redesign, 138
invisible versus overt, 135–136
in mathematical proficiency, 565
methods, 133
models, 138
occupations and, 106
organizational context of, 136
organizations, 114
overload, 382
rule-of-thumb like methods for carrying out, 187
socially recognized, 128
Work Analysis, 208
Work Domain Analysis. See WDA
work domains
mapping the functional structure of, 217
models of, 214
representing, 210
work practices
documenting, 127
observing in natural settings, 127–142
study of as a study of a setting, 128
studying, 129
understanding, 129
work settings
inherent conflicts of, 129
moving studies of knowledge and expertise to, 129
work systems design projects, 132–133
work tasks
comprehensive representation of, 380
recording, 139
workers
as agents, 128
demand for, 75
development of, 76
viewing as social actors, 128
working intelligence, 758
working memory (WM), 590
accuracy and rapidity of, 557
activation decreased with task practice, 662
age-related declines in, 732
anomalous information processing by, 640
automaticity and, 639
in calculation, 557–558
capacity, 249, 431
chunking expanding the functional size of, 58
consonant item-recognition task, 660
demands of composing processes on, 392
demands of writing on, 392
expanded for an expert, 598
expanded in experts, 598, 599
experts maintaining large amounts of information in, 56
form of expanded, 599
in groups of apprentice and expert pilots, 365
impact of training on, 661
important during the early stages of learning, 33
as an intellectual bottleneck on human thought, 36
limit of, 57
measuring using a rotation span task, 365
during method of loci training, 549
model, 661
multi-digit numbers in visuospatial, 563
negative relationship to age, 593
of novices in situation analysis, 637
phases of tasks, 661
psychological investigation of, 557
in situation awareness, 636
situation projection long-term memory and, 636
skills supporting expanded, 235
slowing of retrieval and storage to and from, 726
storage, 564
training improving processing capacity, 662
types of, 559
working, speed of, 186
workloads
allocation in expert teams, 449
inexperienced aviation pilots and, 644
management and aviation student pilot situation awareness, 642
management strategies for, 368
as situation awareness model factor, 635
workplaces, 128
acquiring expertise in, 33
methodologies studied in, 133
observing and systematically studying, 131
as partners in a cooperative activity with the observer, 139
performance tests, 33
Workspace and Workpatterns analysis, 216
worlds
cognitive systems engineering envisioned, 193
exploration of envisioned, 199
Wranglers at Cambridge University, 556
wrestlers
practice activities of, 306
rating practice activities for, 307
time use estimates, 307
Wright brothers
airplane invention and creative thinking, 776–779
airplane research, 776
expertise as a continuum, 779
expertise redefinition by, 784
general mechanical expertise, 778
mechanical expertise and observation, 770–771
non-domain expertise and, 782
writers, 758. See also fiction writers; professional writers
academic, 394, 396
anticipating readers reactions, 394
awareness of readership, 394
characteristics of professional-level, 389
cognitive strategies of, 393
concrete language of, 392
creative, 395, 399
deliberate practice by, 396–397
domain specificity of, 393
first draft phase actions, 391
fluency in sentence generation, 392
habitual ways of approaching work, 395–396
imagery used by, 710
jobs of career, 390
knowledge crafting by, 394
practice techniques of well-known, 397
prewriting strategies of, 393
rapid access to long-term memory, 394
rituals of, 396
schedules of, 396
self-evaluation by, 713
self-motivation in, 395
self-satisfaction in, 713
skill acquisition by, 396–399
task demands and, 396
time management by, 710
use of language, 391–392
verbal ability of, 392
wide range of knowledge important for, 397
work habits of, 397
writer’s block
defined, 396
skill demands and, 395
writing. See also professional writing
auditory probe during, 392
cognitive demands of, 390–391
defining professional, 389–390
effects of self-regulatory training on skill, 717, 718
expertise in professional, 389–399
first draft phase of, 391
genre and domain expertise of, 399
managing the emotional ups and downs of, 396
placing demands on working memory, 392
product of reluctant sessions, 395
professional expertise in, 389–399
scientific literature on professional, 390
skill acquisition for, 396–399
specific skills of, 391–396
text composition and, 390
written fluency in children, 398
written records, types of, 140
written text, concretizing plans into, 390
Wundt, Wilhelm, studies of reasoning, 203
Xitact LS500 laparoscopic cholecystectomy simulator, 251
X-ray films, examining, 172
X-ray images
identification of abnormal features in, 268
perception of, 268
years of experience. See also ten year rule
required to attain an international level of chess skill, 305
required to become an expert, 60
young athletes, lacking knowledge to produce quality solutions, 482
young (early) start, in domains calling for physiological development, 298
young persons, channeling into a particular form of expertise, 327
zeal, 724
in mathematical proficiency, 565
for numbers, 561
as a prodigy characteristic, 564
Zuckerman, Harriet
accounted in her discussions uncrowned laureates, 295
approach to the challenge of control or comparison groups, 294
early start in, 298
match between a master teacher and a student, 298
move to study with a master teacher, 297
sample may have excluded others similarly exceptional, 293
as a sociologist, 292
studies as theory driven, 295
talented individuals defined by the Nobel Prize selection committees, 293
work on the sociology of science, 291