Ahmici, 116–117, 332
Akayesu, Jean-Paul, 56
Albright, Madeleine, 1, 12
Allport, Gordan, 246, 339
Altemeyer, B., 191
Alvarez, Jose, 59
Amani Trust, 96–97
Amnesty International, 113
amnesty laws, 10
“Annulling Truth,” 269
Argentina
military trials, 115
Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), 87
Arria, Diego, 36
art
anti-war, 274
Balkan, 277–284
effects, 276, 284
photography, 275–276, 282
Renaissance, 271
Vietnam War, 275–276
war, 271–277
artists, Bosnian, 269
“middle generation,” 279, 283
older generation, 278–279
role of, 270
visual, 270
younger generation, 276, 281, 284
Arusha, Tanzania, see ICTR, 49, 55
Arusha Accords, 50, 51, 71
Asian Women’s Fund, 128
authoritarianism, 202, 203, 212, 226, 326
factor in reconciliation, 185, 191, 200
Bajevic, Maja, 281–282
Balkans wars
social origins, 183–186
Bar-Tal, Daniel, 305
Baumeister, Roy and Stephen Hasting, 148–149
Belgium, 57–58
Beros, Nada, 278
betrayal, 287–288
Bhargava, Rajeev, 21
Bizimungu, Pasteur, 62, 71, 167, 177
Blaskic, Tihomir, 147, 148, 159–160
Blewitt, Graham, 93–94
Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), 2, 3, 10, 22
concentration camps, 29, 227
domestic judicial system, 30
Bosniaks, 7, 9, 22, 25, 86, 95
memory, 239–240
Bowling Alone, 17–18
Brady, Matthew, 272
breakdown theory, 291
Breton, André, 273
Bringa, Tone, 95, 186, 307
Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 18
Buruma, Jan, 116
Butare, 171, 249
Buyoga, 9–10, 163, 171, 208, 210, 211, 212
Byanafashe, Déogratias, 164
Byumba, 249
Cahn, Edmond N., 10, 114
Calley, Lieutenant, 204
Carnegie Commission Report on “Preventing Deadly Conflict,” 19
Cassese, Antonio, 3–4
Celibici, 112
Center for Conflict Management, 73–76
civil society, 318
Clinton, William Jefferson, 92
CODEPU, 126–127
coexistence, 308–309
colonial attitudes, 327
“comfort women,” 128–129
“comic book novel” (graphic), 276–277
command responsibility, 92–95, 101
community service, 133–134
Contact Hypothesis, 199, 201, 246, 308, 339
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 63
crimes against humanity, 49, 93
Croatia, 2, 3, 8, 10, 116, 227
government, 90
Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), 8
Croats, 7, 22, 86, 246, 287–299, 300
Mostar, 240–241
views of ICTY, 32, 33
curriculum, 241, 243
Dadaism, 273
Dayton Accords, 227
de Brito, Alexandra Barahona, 243
de Kock, Eugene, 309–312, 317
“Dead of Antietam, The,” 272
Deadly Ethnic Riot, The, 16
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crimes and Abuse of Power, 112–113
Del Ponte, Carla, 55
Des Forges, Alison, 64, 248
development, see also reparations, 325, 338
Dimitriejevic, Braco, 280
Dix, Otto, 273
Dobrinka, 314–316, 318
domestic legal system
Bosnia, 44, 46
Rwanda, 59–60, 62–63
Doretti, Mimi, 85
Dorfman, Ariel, 340
Drakulic, Slavenka, 308
Drumbl, Mark A., 12
Dzanko, Vladimir, 279
education, 226, 324, 336–337
political, 261
systems, BiH and Croatia, 228–230
elites, social, 233
Eller, Jack, 16
empathy, 306–309, 317–319
individual effort, 316–318
Eppel, Shari, 97
Erdut agreement, 230
Erikson, Erik, 15, 242
ethnic distance, 78, 201–202, 207
psychological research, 184
ethnicity, 17, 216
Rwanda, 176–178, 211, 215, 223–224, 253, 256–260, 263, 265
ethnocentrism, 187–191
exhumations, 96
F scale, 191
Facing History and Ourselves, 336
Faku, Pearl, 311–312, 317
families of victims, 86, 94–98
Fletcher, Laurel, 316, 325
focus groups, see survey groups
Fondebrider, Luis, 85
forensic investigation, 85, 87–88
friendships, 217
betrayal, 298–299
growing distrust, 292
pre-war, 288–290
repair, 294–295, 299–301
separation, 293–300
Friere, Paolo, 19
Fritz, Darko, 282–283
gacaca, 11–12, 49, 58, 59, 62, 63, 66–68, 69, 132–133, 167, 173, 254
assessment, 81–83
attitudes toward, 217, 218, 222–223
background, 69
community service, 217
debate over, 71
emergence, 70
hybrid nature of, 74
implementation, 69–70, 72, 75
information campaign, 77
judges, 72, 76, 217
local concerns, 76–77
location, 78
mandate, 72
means of reconciliation, 72, 219, 222
pilot phase, 72, 76, 82
popular participation, 78, 82
president of court, 80
process, 72, 74
quorums, 79
reconciliation, 74
research project, 75–76
role of local people, 77–79
secretaries, 80
survivors, 79
traditional, 73–74, 77
women, 79
Gacaca Attitude Scale, 217
Galtung, Johan, 18
Geiger, Hans-Jörg, 327
generation gap, 231, 241, 277
friendships, younger generation, 289
middle-age and older, 289–290
genocide, 49, 85, 127–128
1994 Rwandan government version of, 165
Gillis, Jack, 17
Gishamvu Sector, 69–70, 75
globulitarianism, 12
Gobodo-Madikezela, Pumla, 309–311
Goldstone, Richard, 91
Golub, Leon, 276
Gourevitch, Phillip, 66
Goya, Francisco, 271–272
Grdzevic, Izeta, 281
Gross, Jan, 341
“Group Self,” 195
Guatemala, 87–88, 97, 128
“Guernica,” 274
guilt
individualization, 126, 148, 195
Haeberle, Ron L., 275
Hague Convention, 93
Halpern, Jodi, 307
Hansen, Duane, 276
Hayner, Priscilla, 309
Herman, Judith, 98, 108
Hewstone, M., 201
history
teaching, 237
Rwanda, 248, 252, 253, 255–260
critical analysis, 260–262
recommendation for national curriculum, 263, 325, 332
recommendation for national dialogue, 263–264
recommendation for training teachers, 263–264, 265, 332
Hoepken, Wolfgang, 336
Horowitz, David, 16
human rights clubs, 250, 257
Human Rights Quarterly, 325
humanization
dehumanization, 305
rehumanization, 305, 307, 308, 309, 339
over time, 314–316
humanizing
the enemy, 312–314
the perpetrator, 309–312
Hutu, 9, 50–51, 64, 68, 70, 75, 212–223, 256, 259
Ibuka, 167
identification, 316–317
identity, 241–242, 248, 290, 294
Mostar, 235–237
ideology, 184, 227
innocence, collective, 335
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 128
interethnic marriage, 188–191, 287
interethnic violence, 305–306
international aid agencies, 326
International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP), 92, 94
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 86–87, 92, 98–99
international community, 147, 255, 326
International Convention of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 113
International Criminal Court, 29, 121
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), xvi, 9, 11–12, 49, 51–52, 68, 86, 87, 89, 127–128, 218, 331
attitudes toward, 212–213, 214, 222
should be held in Rwanda, 214
contributions to international justice, 55–56
contributions to reconciliation, 56–57, 219, 222
finances, 52, 53, 54, 59
judges, 54
mandate, 52, 55, 320
problems, 53, 65, 334–335
prosecutor’s office, 53
recruitment, 52–53
structural problems, 56
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), xvi, 3, 10–12, 29, 30–31, 46, 52, 86, 87, 89, 121, 240, 332, 334
attitudes toward, 147–148, 192–193, 200–201, 213
background, 31–32
failure to establish its importance, 43
financial resources, 39, 42
legal officials feeling of powerlessness and separation of tribunal, 46
legitimacy, 31, 32–33, 37, 39
mandate, 34, 35, 36–37, 41, 320
origins, 35–39
perceptions of, 32–33, 40
result of a political process, 41
social justice, 35
structure, 41–43
use of secret witnesses, 113–114
Victims and Witnesses Section, 110, 111
witnesses, 104
ethnic composition of interviewees, 105
moral duty to testify at trial, 105
recommendations, 111–112, 114
search for meaning, 106
international tribunals, 5, 332–333, 334
international war crimes tribunals, 85–86
justice, 115
moral burden on, 106
“therapeutic value,” 107–108
international lawyers, 33, 34
perception of by Bosnians, 330
Internews, 56
Inyangamugayo (gacaca judges), 69, 78, 80–81
authority, 82
education, 81
election, 82
training, 82
Iraq, 328
Ivekovic, Sanja, 279–280
Iyankulije, Donatilla, 69
Jedwabne, 341
judicial initiatives, reconciliation, 218, 224
judicial system, 330
Bosnia, 329–330
justice, 4–5, 10, 18, 23, 34, 62, 136, 323–324, 332–336
definition, 114–117, 335
distributive, 45–46
individual, 335
legal, 34–35, 43, 45
“participative,” 73
positivist, 334
reconciliation, 219, 339
rectificatory, 34–35, 38, 43, 45
“restorative,” 74
retributive, 14, 74, 323
Rwandan desires, 77, 219
social reconstruction, 335–336
Kagame, Paul, 60, 167
Karadzic, Radovan, 91
Kardelj, Edvard, 16
Kaufman, Stuart, 16
Kelly, James, 18
Kelman, Herbert and Lee Hamilton, 305
Kibuye, 249
Kim Hak Sun, 128
Klein, Jacques, 8
Kollwitz, Kathe, 272
Koscevik, Zelamir, 283
Kosovo, 29
command responsibility, 92–95
Kristic trial, 114
Lasva Valley, 105, 111, 116
Leave None to Tell the Story, 64
Lederach, John Paul, 304
legal interventions, 17
legal mechanisms, 304
legal order
imposing on the irrational, 4
legal professionals
Bosnia survey, 31, 33–34, 37, 42
Levic, Dean, 104–105
Lippard, Lucy, 275
LIPRODHOR, 225
local initiative, 19
Longman, Timothy, 61
lustration, 10, 29
Mabanza, 9–10
Magritte, René, 274
Mamdani, Mahmood, 5
Mani, Rama, 12, 34, 46
Marija, 314–316, 318
mass graves, 9, 88, 89
Matabeland, 96
Maynard, Kimberly, 20
McDonald, Gabrielle Kirk, 33, 39
media, 185–186, 290, 324, 331
memorials
Rwanda, 174–175
attitude, 174–175, 181
memory
construction of collective, 168, 331
“official,” 336
military trials
Rwanda
reconciliation, 222
Milosevic, Slobodan, 93–94, 118
Ministry of Education (MINEDUC) (Rwanda), 248, 249, 251, 255, 262
Ministry of Education and Sport (MoES), Croatia, 230
minority nationalities, 190
Minow, Martha, 329
Mladic, General Ratko, 90–91
Mostar, 1–7, 143, 145, 229
population, 7
post-war, 150–151
school integration, 245–246
Mpakaniye, Innocent, 77
Mutura, 9–10, 208, 210, 211, 212
My Lai, 305
Nadler, Arie, 300
Nagel, Joanne, 17
Nash, Paul, 273
Nathan, Laurie, 19
National University of Rwanda (NUR), 252, 255
nationalist perspectives, 44–45
Newbury, Catharine, 168
Ngoma, 9–10, 163, 208, 210, 211, 212
Niksic, Jusuf, 278–279
No Man’s Land, 312–314, 316, 318
“Non-Ethnocentric” Factor, 199
Nora, Pierre, 168
Nsengiymuva, Jean-Baptiste, 77
Nuremberg, 35, 36
Nyakizu, 64
Oberschall, Anthony, 305
Obralic, Salim, 279
Office of the High Representative (OHR), xv–xvi, 42, 43, 191, 226, 227, 229
Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) ICTY, 41–42, 89–95, 111
Openness to Reconciliation Scale, 219
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), 229
Organization of African Unity, 51
Osiel, Mark, 115
Outreach Programme ICTY, 42
search, 44
Ovcara, 89–90, 297, 302
Panzos, 97
Pavkovic, Aleksandr, 16
peace-building
literature, 303
“Peasant War, The,” 272
Pettigrew, T. F., 199
Physicians for Human Rights, 88, 92
place, see also art, 276–280, 283
Plavsic, Biljana, 118
Pollack, Craig, 277
Prijedor, 8–9, 86, 143
population, 8–9
Principles on the Right to a Remedy and to Reparations, 137
prosecutor’s office
gacaca, 81, 83
Puljic, Vladimir, 278–279
Putnam, Robert, 17–18
Radio Télévision des Milles Collines (RTLM), 63
Realistic Conflict Theory, 184
Realistic Interest, 202
reclamation, 14–15, 18, 21
reconciliation, 3, 4–5, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 30, 36–37, 59, 62, 70, 71, 73, 117–118, 186, 253, 304, 320, 340
betrayal, 145
contribution of trials to, 116, 149, 222
definition, 197, 207
economic issues, 223
instrumental, 300, 301
interpersonal, 303–304, 306–309, 339
obstacles to, 199
religious ideal, 304–305
Rwanda, 172–175, 177–178
scale, 220, 221
social conditions, 234, 314, 318
trials, 173, 323
Rehn, Elizabeth, 42
re-interpretations, 292
reparations
administrative schemes, 124–127
Argentina, 124
Chile, 124, 126
combining approaches, 136
courts, 123–124, 127–129
Dayton Peace Agreement, 125
defining, 122, 136–137
development paradigm, 129–132, 135
East Timor, 133–134, 135
fate of, 121–122
functions, 122–123
German, 124
Guatemala, 126
preferential access, 135–136
quasi-traditional programs of, 135
Rwanda, 127–128, 132–133, 135, 216
South Africa, 125–126, 129–130
trust funds, 126
Resolution, 955, 52, 64
Reyntjens, Filip, 73
Rosenberg, Tina, 13
Ross, Mark, 16
Rossler, Martha, 275
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 92
rule of law, 2, 14, 44, 47, 327, 329–330
Rwanda, 49
“Rules of the Road,” 31, 41–42
Rutazibwa, Gérard, 76
Rwanda, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 10–12, 29, 86, 89, 135, 136, 225
clan structure, 253
colonial rule (official version), 164–166
communes, 179
Compensation Fund, 133, 136
genocide, 50–51
official discourse, 170–171
survivors, 171–172
government of, 49, 54–55, 58–59, 61, 82, 121, 162–163, 164, 166–167, 206, 254, 256
historiography, 168
history of ethnic violence, 70–71, 258
identity, 162
memorials, 166
national symbols, 180, 182
politicization of judiciary, 61–62
post-colonial governments (official version), 165
post-genocide, 177
reconciliation, 165–166
society, 164
solidarity camps, 166, 182, 253, 254–257
trials, 59, 60, 166, 216
categories of offenders, 58–59
false arrests, 66
reconciliation, 216, 219
reparations, 216
violence, from the outside, 181
Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), 60, 61, 65
Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), 10, 50, 51, 55, 58, 60, 61, 68, 70, 133, 162, 163, 164, 166–167, 172, 179, 180, 208, 214, 215, 217, 223
massacres, 167
Rwandan Trial Attitude Scale, 215
Sacco, Joe, 276
Sarajevo, 91
Sarajevo Artist Center, 269
Sarajevo Education Working Group, 227
Sarason, Seymour, 18
Schwan, Gesine, 307
schools, 239, 243, 249, 342
Rwanda, 250–253, 254–255, 257–258, 262
secondary education, 262
teaching shortage, 251–252
school integration, 337
Bosniaks, 236–237
Croatia, 231, 234, 235–236, 242, 243, 247
Mostar, 245–246, 337
survey results, 232
Vukovar, 244–245
Selz, Peter, 274
Serbs, 2, 7, 8, 104, 242, 287–300
Bosnian, 9, 23, 86
memory, 238–239
views of ICTY, 32, 33
Sherif, Muzafer, 15
Simon, Jean-Marie, 276
Sklar, Judith, 5
Sljivancanin, Major Veselin, 87, 90
Slovenia, 8
Smith, Anthony, 336
Smith, David, 275
Snow, Clyde, 87
Soba, Nebojsa Seric, 281–282
social conditions, 308, 314, 318–319
Social Distance Scale (Bogardus), 188–189, 202
social reconstruction, 14, 21, 152, 195, 277, 294, 324
definition, 5–6, 288
ecological paradigm, 18–20, 195, 325–337
components of, 327–328
access to accurate and unbiased information, 330
freedom of movement, 328–329
rule of law, 329–330
security, 328
ICTY, 35, 37
majority opinion, 195
political elite, 196
Rwanda, 63
Spiegelman, Art, 276
Srebrenica, 2, 90–92, 93, 95
survivors, 97
Stari Most, 151–152, 278–279, 283
stereotypes, 191, 227, 242, 306, 307, 313, 319
Stereotype Scale, 191
Strinovic, Davor, 90
Strom, Margot, 336
Suljevic, Alma, 269–270, 280
Surrealism, 273–274
survey groups, 144, 163–164, 187, 208–211, 228, 233, 249–250, 262, 287
survey methods, 197, 208–209
survivors, 333
“survivor mission,” 108
Switzerland, 57
Tajfel, Henri, 15
Tchiki, 312–314, 317
teachers, 231, 233, 234, 240, 241, 247, 254, 263–264, 265
Tepavac, Mirko and Elizabeth Neuffer, 307
tevhid, 95
textbooks, 238, 240, 249
“Third of May,” 271
third-party prosecutions, 57–58
Tito, Josip, 16, 184, 336
Tomic, Milica, 280, 282
trauma, 107–108, 109, 207–208, 209, 211, 212, 217, 218, 219, 221, 254, 287, 324, 333
factor in reconciliation, 199, 223
post-traumatic stress disorder, 221, 224
checklist, 225
trials, 3, 14, 29, 325, 335
catharsis, 12–13
effects of, 44
pedagogical nature, 43–45, 77, 115
reconciliation, 30, 173
therapeutic value, 107, 324
views of, 147–149, 173
Rwanda, 212, 213, 214, 219–222, 223
truth, 82
truth commissions, 10, 13–14, 29, 61, 121, 304
East Timor, 134
El Savador, 125
Guatemala, 125, 130
(Guatemalan Truth Commission), 138
South Africa, 14, 23, 125, 130, 138, 309–312
Tudjman regime, 278
Turner, John, 15
Tutsi, 9, 50–51, 64, 70, 75, 76, 136, 170–172, 212–223, 259
United Nations, 51, 52, 53, 206, 227, 326
United Nations Development Program, 131
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 98
United Nations Security Council, 51, 52, 55, 87
separate prosecutors ICTY and ICTR, 55
United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slovenia, 8
Vansina, Jan, 169
Varshney, Ashutosh, 6
Verdery, Katherine, 95
victim identification, 85–86
victimhood, 126, 147, 300, 301, 331, 332, 334
“victor’s justice,” 40–41, 118
see also ICTY, legitimacy
Vuillamy, Ed, 9, 160
Vukovar, 7–8, 87, 111, 143, 145, 150, 287, 290–301
deterioration of relationships among friends, 291
memory, 238–239
school integration, 244–245
Vuletic, Srdjan, 282
Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan, 116
Wald, Patricia, 114
war crimes, 49
ways of remembering, 149
war crimes trials, 195, 199, 200–201, 323
trauma and attitudes toward, 200–201
Widner, Jennifer, 4
witnesses
entitlements, 109
treatment of, 108–109
value of ICTY participation, 117–119
World Bank, 131
Yugoslav National Army, 87
Yugoslavia, 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 16, 23, 306
ethnic divisions, 146
identity, 146–147, 148
Communist-nationalist leadership, 186