Abernethy, David, 60
Achen, Christopher, 223
Administration of Natives Proclamation (1916), 28,n:30
African National Congress (ANC), 107,109,112,166,182,229,234–238,268
ethnic appeals by, 183–184
Agbese, Pita Ogaba, 278
Agenda for Zambia (AZ), 156,239–240
Alila, Patrick, 265
Andhra Pradesh, 142
Apthorpe, Raymond, 23
Ashbaugh, Leslie, 86
Azarya, Victor, 163,165
Banton, Michael, 9
Bantu Botatwe Ngoma Yamaanu, 214–216
Barkan, Joel, 198,258,260,267
Barotseland Agreement of 1964, 186,189,190–191,197–198
Barrows, Walter, 258
Barth, Fredrik, 11
Bates, Robert, 2,3,4,11,31,34,40,49,50,85,97,98,108,122,123,124,138,145,157,164
Bayart, Jean-Francois, 23,24
Baylies, Carolyn, 87,157,174,195,196,197,200
Bemba
centralized traditional organization of, 28
multi-dimensionality of, 119–128
Paramount Chief Chitimukulu, 122,180
perceived domination of, xi–xii, 97,98–101,119,121,125,156
Berger, Elena, 42,44,49,75,83
Bettison, David, 77
Botswana, 257
boundaries of political arena
effect on identity choices, 139–143,252,274–278
Brass, Paul, 5,11,138,287
Bratton, Michael, 98,111,154,168,177,189,304
Brelsford, W. V., 37,54,293
British South Africa Company (BSA Co.), 26–31,41
Bromwich, E. C., 68
Burawoy, Michael, 87
Burundi, 257
by-elections, 229–232
in Kenya, 262
Cameroon, 257
Campbell, John, 260
candidates
as bearers of both individual identities and party labels, 113–114,202,244–246,253,254
choices about where to run, 198–212
data on tribal affiliations of, 308–309
entry, 201,206,209,211
investments in ethnic associations, 212–216
playing ethnic card, 2,106–107,114,115,148–149,165,180–181,251
card game as metaphor for identity choice, 3,7,21,288
Carey Jones, N. S., 33
Carey, John, 144,228
Cartwright, John, 258
Caselli, Francesco, 4
Central African Republic, 257
Central Province, 166,214
Chabal, Patrick, 109
Chandra, Kanchan, 4,12,15
Chanock, Martin, 35
Chanshi, Peter, 100
Chazan, Naomi, 163,165,171
chiefs, 212–213
as protectors of migrants’ property, 50–51
as tax collectors in colonial era, 27–30
Chikulo, Bornwell, 87,154,175,176,184,195,197
Chililabombwe, 167
Chiluba, Fredrick, 54,113,121,n:122,124,128,157,177,188,n:248
perceptions of ethnic favoritism by, 96–99
Chimba, Justin, 121,192,215
Chingola, 167
by-election in (1995), 232
Chipangali constituency, 201
Chipango, William, 96,112,194
Chipungu, Samuel, 31,33,35–36
Chitala, Derrick, 109
Chona, Mainza, 166,175,200,203,228
Christian missions in Northern Rhodesia
and African education, 61–62,76
and consolidation of language use, 60–64,79
Chwe, Michael, 6
class cleavages, 131,284
lack of salience in Zambia, 22,86–88
Cliffe, Lionel, 258
Cohen, Abner, 11,138,287
Collier, Paul, 14
colonial educational system
and consolidation of language use, 64–68,79
growth in enrollment, 65–68
colonial rule
effect on post-colonial identities, 23,26–55,80–83
effect on structure of post-colonial ethnic cleavages, 23,52–53,56–80,83–88
taxation as impetus for migration under, 41–42,75
taxation under, 26–30,49
Colson, Elizabeth, 28,34,57,82,101,163,214,216
competing explanations, 161–176
economic performance, 163–165
endogeneity, 165–168
modernization, 162–163
Copperbelt, 42–52,69,81,97,111,119,181,214
Bemba as lingua franca in, 71,72–75
ethnic segregation in, 46,47
mine closures in early 1930s, 42–43
violence in, 167,183
Crehan, Kate, 31
Dahl, Robert, 14
Daloz, Jean-Pascal, 109
Davis, Merle, 44,47,49,60
decolonization
effects on identities, 142–143,n:275
Democratic Party of Kenya (DP), 267
Diamond, Larry, 310
Doke, C. M., 61,79
Doucette, Joseph Melvin, 120
Douglas, Stephen, 276–277
Downs, Anthony, 153
Dresang, Dennis, 97,102,185
Dunbar, John, 188
Eastern Province, 99,100,108,110,118,156,166,182,186,213
ecological inference problem, 223–227,248
Ekeh, Peter, 23
electoral rules, 150,257
effects on scope of effective political arena, 144–145
Epstein, A. L., 11,45,48,50,69,119,163
Ethiopia, 257
ethnic associations
investment by politicians in, 212–216
ethnic cleavage structure, 21–22
definition of, 17,283
endogeneity of, 286–288
in Zambia, 18
ethnic cleavages, 15–17
endogeneity of, 286–288
nested, 135
salience of, 1–2,136
territoriality of, 151–152
ethnic favoritism
by president, 96–101,109–110
in cabinet appointments, 97,125–128
conflicting perceptions of, 97–98,125–128
expectations of, 3,90,94,95–104,109,251,253,254,256,260,267
implications of expectation of, 104–106,113
in loan applications, 95
in private job market, 95
in public sector, 96–97,100,101–102
ethnic group
size as criterion for identity choice, 4,12,13,17,139,194,252
ethnic identities
depth of feeling, 12–14
instrumental use of, 6,11–15,24–25,82–83,104–128,138,252
investment in new, 284–286
primordialist view of, 15
situational salience of, 5,11,275,294–297
ethnic identity matrix, 132–136,255,278–286
assumptions, 132–133,150,279,280
and boundaries of political arena, 139–141
for Moldova, 279
for Nigeria, 280
for nineteenth-century Ireland, 285
predictons about identity entrepreneurship, 284–286
strategies of x, y, and z, 133–135,282–286
usefulness of false predictions, 281–282
for Yorubaland, 281
for Zambia as a whole, 146–147
for Zambian electoral constituencies, 147–148
ethnic multi-dimensionality, xii, 1–2,89,256
in Kenya, 260–262
in Los Angeles, 16,137–139
in Miami, 2
in Nigeria, 1
political implications of, 4,114–128,252
in Sri Lanka, 4
in Zambia, 7,115–119
ethnic politics
applying ethnic labels to others, 106–107,112–113,115
as coalition building, 3–5,12,106–113,252
ethnic campaigning, 179–198
ethnic voting, 251
in Zambia, 217–249
Fearon, James, 4,10,287
federalism, 257,276–278
Ferguson, James, 50,52,85–86
Ferree, Karen, 27,153
Firmin-Sellers, Kathryn, 34
Fisher, Humphrey, 259
focus groups, 54,305–307
identifying codes for, 306
map drawing exercise in, 108,307
Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-Asili (FORD-Asili), 267
Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-Kenya (FORD-Kenya), 267
franchise
extension of in India, 275
extension of in Ireland, 285
extension of in Zaire, 275
Franklin, Harry, 31,36,68
Freedom House, 169
Gadsden, Fay, 65,79
Gambia, 257
Gann, L. H., 26,27,28,41
Geist, Judy, 271
gender identities, 84,86,151–152
Gertzel, Cherry, 87,108,111,130,175,183,193,196,197,258,262,263
Ghana, 257
Gluckman, Max, 50
Gonzalez, Elian, 277
Gourevitch, Philip, xi
Greig, Jack, 65
Gulliver, P. H., 23,60
Hachipuka, Emmanuel, 191
Hailey, Lord, 32,35,46,55,57
Hall, Peter, 7
Hall, Richard, 62,68,118
Hansen, Holger Bernt, 257
Hardin, Russell, 4,163
Harries-Jones, Peter, 75,80
Harrington, William, 210
Hatembo, Munang’angu, 215
Haugerud, Angelique, 260
Hay, Hope, 68
Hayward, Fred, 258
Hechter, Michael, 4
Hellen, John, 42,44,78,80
Henkel, Reinhard, 60,63
Hirschman, Charles, 310
Hobsbawm, Eric, 11
Hornsby, Charles, 258,264,266–267,268,269
Horowitz, Donald, xi, 5,11,13,24,141,142,229,275,287,310
Hyden, Goran, 258,259,260,264
identity repertoire, 7,11
boundedness of, 6–7,22–23,83–84
change within, 14–15
definition of, 17
Imbula, Mwitumwa, 111,189
India, 1
effects of partition on identities, 142
extension of franchise in, 275
Hindu-Muslim riots in, xi, 1,283
Indirect Rule, 30
institutional change
effects on cleavage salience, 5
in Zambia, 18
Ireland
extension of franchise in, 285
Israel, 1
Jackson, Robert, 109
Jega, Attahiru, 163
Johnston, Harry, 27,61
Joint Publications Bureau of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 65
Kabanje, Sipula, 213
Kabika, Felix, 174,175,176
Kabwe
Bemba as lingua franca in, 71,72–75
Kaggia, Bildad, 263–264,272
Kalabo by-election (1995), 194
Kalyvas, Stathis, 287
Kandeh, Jimmy, 258–259
Kapur, Devesh, 19
Kapwepwe, Simon, 98,111–112,125,167,182,183,190,192–193
Kasama, 204
Kasfir, Nelson, 11,23,257,287
Kashoki, Mubanga, 54,55,65
Kasonde, Emmanuel, 113,121,187–188,192,231–232,263
Katzenstein, Mary, 5
Kaunda, Kenneth, 124,127,128,166,167,168,177,178,181,182,186,187,190
perceptions of ethnic favoritism by, 100
Kavindele, Enoch, 232
Kay, George, 49
Kenya, 198,258,260
1992 general election in, 266–273
1997 general election in, 267–269
Central Nyanza, 263
ethnic violence in, 269
Gatundu South constituency, 272
Gem constituency, 265–266,268
Kandara constituency, 263
Kisumu Rural constituency, 265,268
Laipika West constituency, 268
little general election (1966) in, 262–264
multi-party elections in, 262–264,266–273
nesting of national-scale and local identities in, 261
one-party elections in, 264–266,271–273
press freedom in, 170
Kenya African National Union (KANU), 262–263,267–269
Kenya Human Rights Commission, 269
Kenya People’s Union (KPU), 262–263,268
Kenyatta, Jomo, 262–263,267
Kenyatta, Uruhu, 272
Key, V. O., 145
Kibaki, Mwai, 267
King, Gary, 223–224
King, Rodney, 297
Kitwe, 208
Knodel, John, 307
Koff, David, 262
Kolsto, Pal, 279
Koroma, Sorie, 259
Kuran, Timur, 94
labor migration
in colonial Northern Rhodesia, 41–42
and consolidation of language use, 69,78,80
to the Copperbelt and Kabwe, 72–75
effects on rural areas, 43–44
to Livingstone, 76
to Lusaka, 76–77
Laitin, David, 9,10,23,60,61,138,179,281–282,287
language use
consolidation of during colonial era, 57–69
distribution of in pre-colonial era, 57
map of, 71
in urban areas, 63,69
Leakey, Richard, 268
Lemarchand, Rene, 23
Lesotho, 257
Lewanika, Akashambatwa Mbikusita, 189
Lewanika, Inonge Mbikusita, 109,189
Leys, Colin, 258,260,264
Lightfoot-Boston, Henry, 259
Lincoln, Abraham, 276–277
Linz, Juan, 276
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 286
Livingstone, 157,166,214
Lozi as lingua franca in, 72,76
Lozi
centralized traditional organization of, 28,36
paramount chief (Litunga), 28,109,157,180,186,189
Luapula Province, 97,119,120,121,122–125,128,157,166,193
Luchembe, Chipasha, 46,74
Luke, David Fashole, 258
Lunda
centralized traditional organization of, 28
Lungu, Gatian, 170
Lusaka
Nyanja as lingua franca in, 71,76–77
Luyanga, Leonard, 174,198
Macmillan, Hugh, 52
Maimisa, Hudson, 166
majimboism, 284
Malawi, 257
press freedom in, 170
Malole by-election (1993), 113,187–188,192,193,231–232
Mamdani, Mahmood, 23
Masongo, Cosmas, 175
Matiba, Kenneth, 267
Mauritius, 256
Mazabuka by-election (1999), 247–248
Mazoka, Anderson, 191,248
Mbabala by-election (2000), 191
Mboya, Tom, 263
McCulloch, Merran, 76
Meebelo, Henry, 28
Melberg, Olav, 279
Mendelberg, Tali, 138
minimum winning coalition, 4,13,134,138,252,253,266
Mitchell, J. Clyde, 11,47,52,81,121,163
Miyanda, Godfrey, 99
Mkushi, 213–214
Moerman, Michael, 11
Moi, Daniel arap, 267,269
Moldova, 279–280,283,284
Molteno, Robert, 87,98,108,111,112,154,182,183,184,185,186,228
Momba, Jotham, 87
Morgenthau, Ruth, 258
Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), 100,108,113,156,157,177–178,186,214,230–232,238–239,247–248,269
ethnic appeals by, 190,191,193–194
Mpundu, Leonard, 120,167
Mufulira, 166
by-election in (1971), 192–193,269
Mulemba, Humphrey, 109,239
Mulford, David, 182
multi-party elections
language appeals during, 8,130,148–149,184–192,253
language voting during, 228–241
non-linguistic appeals during, 192
tribal voting during, 253
Mundia, Nalumino, 182
Mung’omba, Dean, 109
Musokotwane, Kebby, 110
Musukwa, Joseph, 188
Mutende, 68
Muyovwe, Aaron, 214
Muzumi, James, 215
Muzyamba, S. C. M., 215
Mwaanga, Vernon, 99
Mwanakatwe, John, 123–124,157,193
Mwila, Unia, 121,210,215
Mwinilunga, 166
Mytton, Graham, 68,79
Nagata, Judith, 11
Nang’omba, Griffiths, 247–248
National Lima Party, 85,239
National Party (NP), 109,110–111,113,121,156,157,187,193,230–232,239–240
ethnic appeals by, 187–189
Native Authorities, 31–40,53,289–293
control over allocation of land, 34,50
Native Courts, 34–36
Native Treasuries, 32–34
test of effects on ethnic identity formation, 36–40
Native Urban Courts, 45–46,47
Ndola, 181
Ng’ethe, Njuguna, 258,267
Ngoni
centralized traditional organization of, 28
Nigeria, 1,257,280–283
Agila Development Association, 277–278
conflict in, 1
Yorubaland, 281–282
Nkombo, Gary, 247–248
Nkoya
conflict with Lozi, 118,157
Nkumbula, Baldwin, 109
Nkumbula, Harry Mwaanga, 109,182,184,190,221
North, Douglass, 2
Northern Province, 81,97,111,113,119,120,121,124–125,166,187,231
Northern Rhodesia
copper industry in, 42–48
Northern Rhodesian Native Labour Association (NRNLA), 74
Northwestern Province, 108,166,196,230
as an identity category, 118–119
language use in, 78–80
Nyundu, Foxy Hudson, 178
Odinga, Oginga, 262–263,267
Odinga, Raila, 267
Okema, Michael, 260
Okumu, John, 265
Ollawa, Patrick, 88,100
Olzak, Susan, 163
one-party elections
nature of campaigns in, 173–176,199–200
tribal appeals during, 9,130,149–150,195–198,253
tribal voting during, 218–227,253
one-party vs. multi-party systems
control of campaigns in, 173–176
differences between types, 143–144,168–176
effects on cleavage salience, 145–146,148–150,155
effects on scope of effective political arena, 144–146
incumbent turnover in, 171–172
political freedoms in, 169–171
Ottaway, Maria, 24
Oyugi, Walter, 268
Papstein, Robert, 46
Parpart, Jane, 87
patronage, 89,95–104
greater salience than policy in developing countries, 105,154
Patterson, Orlando, 11
perfect information, 152–158
Perrings, Charles, 73
Petersen, Roger, 13,279
Phelps-Stokes Commission, 65
Phiri, Reuben Motolo, 175,176
political institutions
as coordinating devices, 5–6
definition of, 2
determine boundaries of political arena, 5,143,252,275–278
effect on identity choices, 3–6,131,252
effect on repertoire of identities, 3,6–7,22–23,25,26–52
political parties
attempt to portray themselves as pan-ethnic, 107,110–112,114,182,183,191
effect of party labels on candidates, 113–114,144,228
perceived in ethnic terms, 107,153,233,253,262–264
playing ethnic card, 110–113,114,182,183,191,268
Posen, Barry, 157
Posner, Daniel, 154,189,294
Prins, Gwyn, 29,57
Prunier, Gérard, xi
Putnam, Robert, 160
radio broadcasting and consolidation of language use, 68–69,79
Ragsdale, John, 62
Ranger, Terence, 23
redistricting, 139,274
Reilly, Benjamin, 5,287
Reynolds, Andrew, 5,257
Rhodesia, 170
Richards, Audrey, 73
Riker, William, 276
Roberts, Andrew, 28,42
Robinson, William, 223
Rokkan, Stein, 286
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 145
Rosberg, Carl, 109
Rotberg, Robert, 28,31,41,61,n:63
Sacks, Harvey, 15,17
Sambanis, Nicholas, 287
saucepan special, 68
Scarritt, James, 87
Schelling, Thomas, 72
Scott, Ian, 154,182,183,185,186,228
secession, 283,284
Seers Report of 1964, 51
Senanga, 181
Seychelles, 257
Shivley, W. Phillips, 223
Shugart, Matthew, 144,228
Sichone, Owen, 189
Sierra Leone, 257,258–259
All People’s Congress, 259
Simutanyi, Neo, 189
Simwinji, Morgan, 186,229
Sklar, Richard, 86,87
Snelson, Peter, 60,62,65
Soko, Hosea, 99,155,174
Sondashi, Ludwig, 232
South Africa, 1,256
Southern Province, 99,101,118,166,182,184,188,191,196–197,214,230
Southern Province Tonga Traditional Association, 215
Spearpoint, C. F., 42,46,47,49
Spilerman, Seymour, 14
Spitulnik, Debra, 69,79
Stepan, Alfred, 276
Stevens, Siaka, 259
strategic voting, 155–156
Sudan, 256
Switzerland, 1
Szeftel, Morris, 87,102,108,111,112,122,124,157,174,184,195–196,200
Tajfel, Henri, 24
Tambiah, Stanley, 29
Tanzania, 256,258,259–260
2000 elections in Zanzibar, 258
Taylor, Rosemary, 7
Thomson, J. Moffatt, 27,36,54
Throup, David, 258,264,266–267,268,269
Tilly, Charles, 287
Tonga, 28
lack of urban migration during colonial era, 77–78
Tordoff, William, 183
traditional ceremonies, 212–213
Treisman, Daniel, 164
Tribal Elders, 45,47,48
tribe
definition of, 1
as term is used in everyday conversation, 115
Twaddle, Michael, 257
Twishibane Mbabanibani, 213–214
Uganda, 257
United National Independence Party (UNIP), 108,109,112,122,156,166,181,186,200,203,229,232,238–239,269
ethnic appeals by, 190,192–193,194
United Party (UP), 107,112,167,182,235
ethnic appeals by, 183,185–186
United Party for National Development (UPND), 247–248,268
ethnic appeals by, 191–192,213–214
United Progressive Party (UPP), 108,111,112,167,183,192–193
ethnic appeals by, 183
urban/rural cleavages
lack of salience in Zambia, 22,84–86
Vail, Leroy, 23,25,50
van Binsbergen, Wim, 118
van Cranenburgh, Oda, 258
van den Berghe, Pierre, 104
van Velsen, Jap, 51
Varshney, Ashutosh, xi, 13,287
Wamalwa, Kijana, 267
Waters, Mary, 14
Weiner, Myron, 5
Werbner, Richard, 23
Western Province, 103,110–111,118,156,181,182,185,187,188–189,193,196,230,235
Widner, Jennifer, 261
Wilkinson, Steven, xi, 9,269,275,283,285–286,287
Wilson, Godfrey, 45,51
Wina, Sikota, 121
Witwatersrand Native Labour Association (WENELA), 76,182–183
Woodward, Susan, 163
Wright, Lawrence, 310
Young, Crawford, 11,23,24,61,80,86,109,256,275,276
Zaire, 257
extension of franchise in, 275
press freedom in, 170
Zambia
1968 general election in, 130,154,172,184,186,196,202,203–204,219,229,234–238
1969 referendum in, 184
1973 general election in, 130,154,172,174,195–197,202,208,221,229
1978 general election in, 172,174,195,197,202
1983 general election in, 154,172,174,175,197,202
1988 general election in, 172,174,175,197,202,203
1990 census in, 19,38–39,58,62,70,92,310–311
1991 general election in, 172,177–178,186,203,208,209,219,230,238
1993 by-elections in, 187–189,230–232
1996 general election in, 172,189,190–191,202,203,204,238–240
declaration of one-party state in, 166
delimitation of constituencies in, 206,208,311
economic decline in, 163,164–165,177
ethnic cleavage structure in, 18
institutional change in, 18
intermarriage in, 92,152,309
myth of 73 tribes in, 54–55
nesting of tribal and linguistic identities in, 116–117,180
Zambia Democratic Congress (ZDC), 108,239
Zambia Political Attitudes Questionnaire (1995), 40,93,96,103,170,294–305
prompt dialogue technique, 297–301,307
sampling protocol, 302–304
Zimbabwe, 256,257
press freedom in, 170
Zulu, Grey, 204