This book discusses the legitimacy of the international criminal law regime. It explains the development of the system of international criminal law enforcement in historical context, from antiquity through the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials, to today’s prosecutions of atrocities in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone. The modern regime of prosecution of international crimes is evaluated with regard to international relations theory. The book then subjects that regime to a critique on the basis of legitimacy and the rule of law, in particular selective enforcement, not only in relation to who is prosecuted, but also to the definitions of crimes and principles of liability used when people are prosecuted. It concludes that although selective enforcement is not as powerful as a critique of international criminal law as it was previously, the creation of the International Criminal Court may also have narrowed the substantive rules of international criminal law.
ROBERT CRYER is Senior Lecturer in Law at the University of Nottingham. He is the book review editor of the Journal of Conflict and Security Law. He teaches international law, criminal law, theory of criminal law, theory of international law, humanitarian law, international criminal law and the law of collective security. He has taught in the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Malaysia and South Africa.
Established in 1946, this series produces high quality scholarship in the fields of public and private international law and comparative law. Although these are distinct legal sub-disciplines, developments since 1946 confirm their interrelation.
Comparative law is increasingly used as a tool in the making of law at national, regional and international levels. Private international law is now often affected by international conventions, and the issues faced by classical conflicts rules are frequently dealt with by substantive harmonisation of law under international auspices. Mixed international arbitrations, especially those involving state economic activity, raise mixed questions of public and private international law, while in many fields (such as the protection of human rights and democratic standards, investment guarantees and international criminal law) international and national systems interact. National constitutional arrangements relating to ‘foreign affairs’, and to the implementation of international norms, are a focus of attention.
The Board welcomes works of a theoretical or interdisciplinary character, and those focusing on new approaches to international or comparative law or conflicts of law. Studies of particular institutions or problems are equally welcome, as are translations of the best work published in other languages.
General Editors | James Crawford SC FBA Whewell Professor of International Law, Faculty of Law, and Director, Lauterpacht Research Centre for International Law, University of Cambridge John S. Bell FBA Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge |
Editorial Board | Professor Hilary Charlesworth Australian National University Professor Lori Damrosch Columbia University Law School Professor John Dugard Universiteit Leiden Professor Mary-Ann Glendon Harvard Law School Professor Christopher Greenwood London School of Economics Professor David Johnston University of Edinburgh Professor Hein Kötz Max-Planck-Institut, Hamburg Professor Donald McRae University of Ottawa Professor Onuma Yasuaki University of Tokyo Professor Reinhard Zimmermann Universität Regensburg |
Advisory Committee | Professor D. W. Bowett QC Judge Rosalyn Higgins QC Professor J. A. Jolowicz QC Professor Sir Elihu Lauterpacht CBE QC Professor Kurt Lipstein Judge Stephen Schwebel |
A list of books in the series can be found at the end of this volume. |
Robert Cryer
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521824743
© Robert Cryer 2005
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2005
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN-13 978-0-521-82474-3 hardback
ISBN-10 0-521-82474-5 hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
To my parents
Preface and acknowledgements | page xi | ||
Table of cases | xiii | ||
Table of treaties | xxi | ||
List of abbreviations | xxiv | ||
Introduction | 1 | ||
1 | The development of international criminal law | 9 | |
Introduction | 9 | ||
Antiquity | 11 | ||
The Middle Ages | 13 | ||
The end of the age of chivalry and the ‘classical’ period of the law of nations | 21 | ||
1700–1914 | 25 | ||
The First World War | 31 | ||
The Second World War | 36 | ||
The Cold War | 48 | ||
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) | 51 | ||
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) | 54 | ||
The International Criminal Court (ICC) | 57 | ||
Other developments in the post-Cold War era | 60 | ||
Conclusion | 72 | ||
2 | International criminal law: State rights, responsibilities and problems | 73 | |
Introduction | 73 | ||
Jurisdiction | 75 | ||
Duties to extradite or prosecute? | 101 | ||
Incorporation into domestic law and harmonisation | 117 | ||
Conclusion | 122 | ||
3 | International Criminal Tribunals and the regime of international criminal law enforcement | 124 | |
Two special cases: Rwanda and former Yugoslavia | 127 | ||
The Rome regime | 142 | ||
Incorporation and harmonisation of international criminal law | 167 | ||
Conclusion | 184 | ||
4 | Selectivity in international criminal law | 191 | |
What selective enforcement involves | 191 | ||
Selectivity in international criminal law | 202 | ||
Conclusion | 230 | ||
5 | Selectivity and the law: I – definitions of crimes | 232 | |
Introduction | 232 | ||
‘Safe’ and ‘unsafe’ Tribunals | 233 | ||
Custom, codification, legitimacy and the nullum crimen sine lege principle | 238 | ||
Aggression | 241 | ||
Genocide | 245 | ||
Crimes against humanity | 247 | ||
War crimes | 262 | ||
Other crimes | 285 | ||
Conclusion | 286 | ||
6 | Selectivity and the law: II – general principles of liability and defences | 289 | |
Introduction | 289 | ||
Defences | 291 | ||
Principles of liability | 308 | ||
Conclusion | 325 | ||
Conclusion | 327 | ||
Select bibliography | 331 | ||
Index | 347 |
This project is the outcropping of work undertaken at two universities, Nottingham and Manchester: first at Nottingham, as a research student, next at Manchester as a lecturer and, finally, back at Nottingham as an academic. From my early days at Nottingham, I owe a debt of gratitude to my supervisors Nigel D. White and Dino Kritsiotis, and to David Harris and the School of Law for granting me a scholarship to pursue my interest in international criminal law.
At Manchester, aside from providing a first-rate intellectual environment, my colleagues were supportive and kind. Particular thanks ought to be recorded to Margot Brazier, Neil Duxbury, Angus McCulloch and John Murphy. Since my return to Nottingham I have received help, support and advice from colleagues, especially Di Birch, Peter Cartwright, Matthew Happold, Robert McCorquodale, Andrew Simester and Dirk van Zyl Smit. Matthew and Robert have also been kind enough to read and comment on parts of this work, as have Richard Burchill and Sangeeta Shah. I have imposed the vast majority of the manuscript of this book on Nigel White, who has given freely of his time to read and comment on it, even though he must be rather tired of seeing some of the material again. I would also like to thank two anonymous reviewers for Cambridge University Press for their helpful comments. One in particular gave a set of exceptionally detailed suggestions, which has been invaluable. I have discussed the issues in this book with too many people to mention individually, but I am grateful to them all.
A great deal of the rewriting of this book was undertaken during a very pleasant stay in the Institut für Völkerrecht in the University of Göttingen. I would like to thank all the members of the University for making me so welcome. Special thanks go to Heike Kreiger for being such an excellent host in Germany. At Cambridge University Press, I would like to thank Finola O’Sullivan, Brenda Burke and Jane O’Regan for all their help and patience.
Parts of the section on Sierra Leone in chapter 1 draw upon an article published in the International and Comparative Law Quarterly in 2001. An early version of chapter 6, alongside some of the introduction to chapter 5, appeared in the 2001 Journal of Conflict and Security Law. I have attempted to keep the book up to date to Easter 2004, but have managed to include some later material where it has been possible.
Abbaye Ardenne Case 4 LRTWC 97 317
Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom Application no 35763/77 105 ILR 24 113–14
Attorney-General of Israel v. Adolph Eichmann (1968) 36 ILR 18 50, 77, 78, 85, 89
Artukovic v. Boyle 140 F. Supp. 245 150
Banković v. Belgium Application No. 52207/99, Admissibility Decision of 12 December 2001 104
Bourtese, Decision of 20 November 2001, reprinted in (2000) 3 YBIHL 677 90
Boudarel, Judgment of the Cour de Cassation 1 April 1993 204
Carvallo, Decision of 11 January 2001 90
Case Concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide (Bosnia-Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) Preliminary Objections (1996) ICJ Rep. 616 102–3, 111
Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. USA) Merits (1986) ICJ Rep. 4 266
Chorzow Factory Case 1 WCR 646 242
Coleman v. Tennessee (1878) 97 US 509 281
Commonwealth ex rel Wadsworth v. Shortall (1903) 55 Atl. 952 293
Cvjetković, Oberste Gerichtshof 13 July 1994, Landsgericht Salzburg, 31 May 1995 92, 101
D. A. v. Osman Conseil de Guerre de Bruxelles, arrét du 21 Dêcembre 1994, Cour Militaire, ch. perm.néerl; arrêt du 24 Mai 1995 204
Demjanjuk v. Petrovsky 776 F. 2d 571 (USCA 6th Circuit 1985); cert. den. 475 US 1016 (1986), 628 F. Supp. 1370; 784 F. 2d 1254 (1986) 85, 88, 150
Difference Relating to Immunity From Legal Process of a Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights (1999) ICJ Rep. 62 293
Djajić No. 20/96. Supreme Court of Bavaria, 3d Strafsenat, 23 May 1997 92
Dover Castle (1922) 16 AJIL 704 85, 293
Dow v. Johnson 100 US 158. 29
DPP v. Polyukhovic (1991) 91 ILR 1 169, 249
Fédération Nationale des Déportes et Internes Résistants et Patriots v. Barbie (1985) 78 ILR 125 50, 85, 122, 202
Ford v. Surget (1878) 97 US 605 28
Garay Hermosilla et al., Case No. 10.843, 1996 Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 156 104
Gowaza Trial (London, William Hodge, 1948) 296
Guatemalan Generals, Tribunal Supremo, Sala de lo Penal, Recurso de casactión 803/2001, 25 February 2003 90, 98–9
Hirota v. MacArthur 335 US 876; 93 L. Ed. 1903 44
In re Albrecht (1947) 14 AD 196 169
In re Burghoff 16 AD 55 200
In re Gabrez Military Tribunal, Division 1, Lausanne, 18 April 1997 101
In re Kahrs (1948) 15 ILR 972 150
In re Rauter, 14 LRTWC 89 85
In re The Republic of Macedonia: Decision on the Prosecutor’s Request for Deferral and Motion for Order to the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, IT-02055-Misc.6, 4 October 2002 209, 219
In re Zuehlke, 14 LRTWC 139 294
In the Matter of the Surrender of Elizaphan Ntakirutimana 1997 LEXIS 20714 (S.D. Tex., Laredo Div. December 17 1997) 141
Irma Reyes et al., Cases 11, 228, 1996 Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 196 104
Island of Palmas Case (1928) 2 RIAA 829, 838 75
Jorgić, OLG Dusseldorf, 26 September 1997 92
Krauch and Others I. G. Farben, 8 TWC 1080 304
Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territories Opinion, 2004, ICJ List No. 131 274
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons Opinion 1996 ICJ Rep. 4 107, 272, 280
Llandovery Castle (1922) 16 AJIL 709 85, 293
Metheram [1961] 3 All ER 200 262
Montt, Audlenca National, 13 December 2000, English translation in (2000) 3YBIHL 691 89
Military Prosecutor v. Niyontenze, Tribunal Militaire Division 2, Lausanne, 30 April 1999, Tribunal Militaire d’Appel, IA Geneva, 26 May 2000 93, 170
Ntakirutimana v. Reno (184 F. 3d 419, US Court of Appeals, 5th Circuit) 141, 150
Nuclear Weapons Opinion see Legality of the Threat Case
Nulyarimma v. Thompson (1999) 165 ALR 621 119
Nuremberg IMT, Judgment and Sentence (1947) 41 AJIL 172 1–2, 16, 30, 39, 40, 48, 118, 205, 241–3, 285, 295, 302, 310, 317
Papon, Judgment of Chambre d’Accusation de la Cour d’Appel de Bordeaux, 18 September 1996 204
Pinochet Case 19/97, November 4 1998, Case 1/980 November 5 1998, reprinted in (1999) 2 YBIHL 505 89
Priebke Rome Military Court of Appeal 7 March 1998 297
Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Judgment, ICTR-96-4-T, 2 September 1998 170, 179, 314
Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Judgment, ICTR-96-4-A, 1 June 2001 16, 252–3
Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, Judgment, IT-95-14/1-T, 25 June 1999 169, 177, 264
Prosecutor v. Aleksovski, Judgment, IT-95-14/1-A, 24 March 2000 177, 220, 303, 317
Prosecutor v. Bagilishema Judgment, ICTR-95-1A-T, 7 June 2001 179
Prosecutor v. Bagilishema, Judgment, ICTR-95-1A-A, 3 July 2002 179, 322
Prosecutor v. Bagosora, Decision of the Trial Chamber on the Application by the Prosecutor for a Formal Request for Deferral by the Kingdom of Belgium and in the matter of Theoneste Bagosora, ICTR-96-7-D, 17 May 1996 131
Prosecutor v. Barayagwiza, Decision, ICTR-97-19-AR72, 19 November 1999 142
Prosecutor v. Barayagwiza, Decision (Prosecutor’s Request for Review or Reconsideration) ICTR-97-19-AR72, 31 March 2000 142
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, Decision of the President on the Defence Motion Filed Pursuant to Rule 64, IT-95-14-T, 2 April 1996 132
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, Decision on the Request of the Republic of Croatia for Review of the Decision of Trial Chamber Ⅱ of 18 July 1997, IT-95-14-AR108bis, 29 October 1997 133, 134, 135, 136
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, Decision of Trial Chamber Ⅰ on Protective Measures for General Phillipe Morillion, Witness of the Trial Chamber, IT-95-14-T, 12 May 1999 140
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, Judgment, IT-95-14-T, 2 March 2000 276, 314, 317, 318, 319, 321, 322
Prosecutor v. Blaškić, Judgment, IT-95-14-A, 29 July 2004 140, 277, 322–3
Prosecutor v. Brdjanin and Talić, Decision on Interlocutory Appeal, IT-99-36-AR73.9, 11 December 2002 135
Prosecutor v. Brima, Kamara and Kanu, Written Reasons for the Trial Chamber’s Oral Decision on the Defence Motion on Abuse of Process due to Infringement of Principles of Nullum Crimen Sine Lege and Non-Retroactivity as to Several Counts, SCSL-04-16-PT, 31 March 2004 170
Prosecutor v. Delalić, Delić, Mucić and Landžo, Judgment, IT-96-21-T, 16 November 1998 169, 176, 177, 216, 256, 290, 302, 311, 317, 318, 319, 321, 324
Prosecutor v. Delalić, Delić, Mucić and Landžo, Judgment, IT-96-21-A, 20 February 2001 176, 177, 193, 194, 213, 318, 321, 322, 323, 324
Prosecutor v. Djajić, Supreme Court of Bavaria See Djajić, 23 May 1997
Prosecutor v. Erdemović, Judgment, IT-96-22-A, 29 November 1997 298, 302–3
Prosecutor v. Fofana, Decision on Preliminary Motion on Lack of Jurisdiction Materiae: Illegal Delegation of Powers by the United Nations, SCSL-2004-14-AR72(E), 25 May 2004 65
Prosecutor v. Fofana, Decision on Preliminary Motion on Lack of Jurisdiction Materiae: Nature of the Armed Conflict, SCSL-2004-14-AR72(E), 25 May 2004 63, 180
Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Judgment, IT-95-17/1-T, 10 December 1998 81, 86, 111, 113, 174, 177, 258, 311
Prosecutor v. Galić, Judgment, IT-98-29-T, 5 December 2003 217, 278
Prosecutor v. Gbao, Decision on Appeal by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (‘TRC’) and accused against the decision of Judge Bankole Thompson on 3 November 2003 to deny the TRC’s request to hold a public hearing with Augustine Gbao, SCSL-2004-15-PT109, 7 May 2004 65
Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović, Alagić and Kubura, Decision on Interlocutory Appeal in Relation to Command Responsibility, IT-01-47-AR72, 16 July 2003 175, 177–8, 319, 323
Prosecutor v. Hadžihasanović, Alagić and Kubura, Decision on Joint Challenge to Jurisdiction, IT-01-47-PT, 12 November 2002 256
Prosecutor v. Jelisić, Judgment, IT-95-10-T, 14 December 1999 246
Prosecutor v. Kallon and Kamara, Decision on Challenge to Jurisdiction: Lomé Accord Amnesty, SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E) and SCSL 2004-16-AR72(E), 13 March 2004 65, 93, 109
Prosecutor v. Kanyabashi, Decision on the Defence Motion on Jurisdiction ICTR-96-15-T, 18 June 1997 56, 133
Prosecutor v. Karemera, Decision, ICTR-98-44-T, 25 April 2001 56
Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, Judgment, ICTR-95-1-T, 21 May 1999 179, 260, 317, 324
Prosecutor v. Kayishema and Ruzindana, Judgment, ICTR-95-1-A, 1 June 2001 247
Prosecutor v. Kordić and Čerkez, Judgment, IT-95-14/2-T, 26 February 2001 177, 276, 307, 314
Prosecutor v. Krnojelac, Judgment, IT-97-25-T, 15 March 2002 324
Prosecutor v. Krsmanović & Djukić, Order for Provisional Detention, IT-96-20 135
Prosecutor v. Krstić, Judgment, IT-98-33-T, 2 August 2001 246, 256
Prosecutor v. Krstić, Judgment, IT-98-33-A, 19 April 2004 120, 240, 312
Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovać and Vuković, Judgment, IT-96-23-T, 22 February 2001 257, 258
Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovać and Vuković, Judgment, IT-96-23-A, 12 June 2002 254, 257
Prosecutor v. Kupreškić, Kupreškić, Josipović, Papić and Santić, Judgment, IT-95-16-T, 14 January 2000 177, 199, 217, 255, 260, 283, 308
Prosecutor v. Kvočka, Judgment, IT-98-30-1/T, 2 November 2001 259, 323
Prosecutor v. Lajić, Order for the Withdrawal of Charges Against the Person Named Goran Lajić and for his Release, IT-95-8, 17 June 1996 135
Prosecutor v. Martić, Decision on Rule 61 Hearing, IT-95-11-R61 276
Prosecutor v. Milošević, Decision on Preliminary Motions, IT-99-37, 8 November 2001 19, 211, 213, 214
Prosecutor v. Mrksić, Radić, Sljivancanin and Dokmanović, Decision on the Motion for Release by the Accused Slavko Dokmanović, IT-95-13a-PT, 22 October 1997 133, 138
Prosecutor v. Multinović, Ojdanić and Šainović, Decision on Motion Challenging Jurisdiction, IT-99-37-PT, 6 May 2003 209
Prosecutor v. Multinović, Šainović and Ojdanić, Decision on Ojdanić’s Motion Challenging Jurisdiction – Joint Criminal Enterprise, IT-99-37-AR72, 21 May 2003 312
Prosecutor v. Multinović, Šainović and Ojdanić, Reasons for Decision Dismissing the Interlocutory Appeal Concerning Jurisdiction Over the Territory of Kosovo, IT-99-37-AR72.2, 8 June 2004 209
Prosecutor v. Musema, Decision of the Trial Chamber in the Application by the Prosecutor for a Formal Request for Deferral by Switzerland in the Matter of Alfred Musema, ICTR-96-5-D, 12 March 1996 131
Prosecutor v. Musema, Judgment, ICTR-96-13-T, 27 January 2000 179, 324
Prosecutor v. Nahimana, Barayagwiza and Ngeze, Judgment, ICTR-99-52-T, 3 December 2003 210, 315
Prosecutor v. Nikolić, Decision on Defence Motion Challenging the Exercise of Jurisdiction by the Tribunal, IT-94-2-PT, 9 October 2002 138
Prosecutor v. Nikolić, Decision on Interlocutory Appeal Concerning Legality of Arrest, IT-94-2-AR73, 5 June 2003 138–9
Prosecutor v. Norman, Decision on Preliminary Motion Based on Lack of Jurisdiction (Child Recruitment) SCSL-2004-14-AR72, 31 May 2004 275, 284
Prosecutor v. Ntuyuhaga, Decision on the Prosecutor’s Motion to Withdraw the Indictment ICTR-96-40-T, 18 March 1999 94, 128, 129
Prosecutor v. Rutaganda, Judgment, ICTR-96-3-T, 6 December 1999 179
Prosecutor v. Semanza, Judgment, ICTR-97-20-T, 15 May 2003 179, 252
Prosecutor v. Sesay, Kallon and Gbao, Decision on the Disqualification of Justice Robertson from the Appeals Chamber, SCSL-2004-15-AR15, 13 March 2004 65
Prosecutor v. Simić, Tadić and Zarić, Decision on the Prosecution Motion under Rule 73 for a Ruling Concerning the Testimony of a Witness, IT-95-9-PT, 27 July 1999 135
Prosecutor v. Simić, Tadić and Zarić, Judgment, IT-95-9-T, 17 October 2003 312
Prosecutor v Simić, Tadić, Zarić and Todorović, Decision Stating Reasons for Trial Chamber’s Order of 4 March 1999 on Defence Motion for Evidentiary Hearing on the Arrest of the Accused Todorovic, IT-95-9, 4 March 1999 138
Prosecutor v. Simić, Tadić, Zarić and Todorović, Decision on Appeal by Stevan Todorović Against the Oral Decision of 4 March 1999 and Written Decision of 25 March 1999 of Trial Chamber Ⅲ, IT-95-9-A, 19 October 1999 138
Prosecutor v. Simić, Tadić, Zarić and Todorović, Decision, IT-95-9-T, 23 November 2003 138
Prosecutor v. Stakić, Judgment, IT-97-24-T, 31 July 2003 246, 256
Prosecutor v. Strugar, Decision, IT-01-42, 22 November 2002 277
Prosecutor v. Tadić, Decision on the Request of the Prosecutor for a Formal Request for Deferral, IT-94-T, 8 November 1994 127, 130
Prosecutor v. Tadić, Decision on Prosecution Motion for Protective Measures for Witnesses, IT-94-1-T, 10 August 1995 135, 264
Prosecutor v. Tadić, Decision on Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, IT-94-1-AR72, 2 October 1995 19, 53–4, 94, 127, 169, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 281, 282
Prosecutor v. Tadić, Decision on the Defence Motion on the Principle of Non Bis in Idem IT-94-1-T, 14 November 1995 131
Prosecutor v. Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, IT-94-1-T, 7 May 1997 38, 83, 139, 249, 251, 252, 254–5, 259, 260, 311
Prosecutor v. Tadić, Judgment, IT-94-1-A, 15 July 1999 20, 130, 174, 251, 252, 311, 312, 315, 316
Prosecutor v. Taylor, Decision on Immunity, SCSL-2003-01-Ⅰ, 31 May 2004 62, 65, 74
Prosecutor v. Todorović See Prosecutor v. Simić et al.
Prosecutor v. Vasiljević, Judgment, IT-98-32-T, 28 November 2002 239, 260
Prosecutor v. Vasiljević, Judgment, IT-98-32-A, 24 March 2004 312
Quinn v. Robinson 783 2 F. 2d 776, 779 150
R v. Bow Street Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte [1998] 4 All ER 897 108
R v. Bow Street Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte [No. 2] [1999] All ER 577 70
R v. Bow Street Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte [No. 3] Amnesty International Intervening [1999] 2 All ER 97 81, 86, 97, 110, 119
R v. Finta 104 ILR 285 60, 120, 249
R v. Sawoniuk (2001) 2 Cr App R. 220 60
R v. Smith (1900) 17 SCR 561 293
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide Opinion (1951) ICJ Rep. 15 103, 111, 113, 246
Riggs v. State (1866) 43 Tenn. 85 293
Rohrig, Brunner and Heinze (1950) 17 ILR 393 77, 78
Sharon, Chambre de Msses en Accusation of Brussels, 26 June 2002, Court of Cassation, 12 February 2003 90
SS Lotus (France v. Turkey) (1927) PCIJ Rep. Series A, No. 10, p. 19. 78, 82, 88
Stanislaus Kroftan v. Public Prosecutor (1967) 1 Malaysian LJ 133 118
State v. Schulmann (1970) 39 ILR 433 150
Tokyo IMT Judgment, Transcript, also in B. V. A. Röling and C. F. Rüter, The Tokyo Judgment (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 1977) 42, 44, 45, 46, 206–8, 242–3, 249, 310, 317
Touvier, Judgment of 20 December 1985 Cass. Crim. 1986 J.C.P. Ⅱ G No 20, 655. 50, 122
US v. Brandt 2 TWC 171 258
US v. Calley (1969) 41 CMR 96; (1973) 46 CMR 1131; (1973) 48 CMR 19; (1973) 22 USCMA 534 50, 76, 118, 204–5, 297
US v. Kindler (1953) 14 CMR 742 297
US v. Masuda (The Jaluit Atoll Case) 1 LRTWC 71 296
US v. Medina (1971) 43 CMR 243, (1973) 22 USCMA 534 50, 76, 290, 291
US v. Ohlendorf (The Einsatzgruppen Trial) 4 TWC 411 296
US v. Sawada 5 LRTWC 1 296
US v. von Leeb (The High Command Trial) 11 TWC 1 18, 201, 296
US v. von List (The Hostages Trial) 8 LRTWC 32 201
US v. Yamashita 327 US 1, 4 LRTWC 1 36, 290, 291
Velasquez-Rodriguez v. Honduras, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgment of July 29, 1988 (1989) 28 ILM 29 104
von Falkenhorst 11 LRTWC 18 314
Yerodia Case, Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium) ICJ General List 121 74, 79, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87–8, 95, 96, 98, 103, 108, 114–16, 205, 328
1864 Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded in Armies in the Field 1 Bevans 7 30
1868 St Petersburg Declaration Renouncing, in Time of War, The Use of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grammes in Weight 58 BFSP (1867–1868) 16 26, 265, 280
1899 Hague Declaration 3 Concerning Expanding Bullets 32 UKTS (1907) Cd. 3751 30, 270
1907 Hague Convention X for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare the Principles of the Geneva Convention 30
1907 Hague Rules, Annex to Hague Convention Ⅳ, Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land 9 UKTS (1910) Cd.5030 30, 248, 265, 270, 276, 280
1919 Treaty of Versailles 112 BFSP 1 (1919) 33–4
1920 Treaty of Sèvres TS No. 11 33
1923 Treaty of Lausanne 8 LNTS 11 33
1925 Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or other Gases 44 LNTS 65 279
1928 General Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy (1929) UKTS 29 Cmnd. 3410 242
1929 Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War 30
1937 Convention for the Creation of an International Criminal Court (1938) League of Nations Official Journal Special Supp. 156 36
1945 Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis Powers and Charter of the International Military Tribunal 82 UNTS 279 37, 38, 39, 40, 48, 168, 241, 246, 263, 285, 292, 294–5, 309–10
1945 United Nations Charter 53, 54, 56, 128, 132, 133, 228
1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 78 UNTS 277 49, 102–3, 176, 246, 311, 313
1949 Geneva Convention Ⅰ for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field 75 UNTS 31 49, 82, 83, 102, 314
1949 Geneva Convention Ⅱ for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea 75 UNTS 85 49, 82, 102
1949 Geneva Convention Ⅲ Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War 75 UNTS 135 49, 79, 82, 102, 271
1949 Geneva Convention Ⅳ Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War 75 UNTS 287 49, 79, 82, 102, 271, 273, 274
1950 European Convention on Human Rights ETS No. 5 239
1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 249 UNTS 240 276
1955 NATO Status of Forces Agreement 1951 UKTS 3 (1955) Cmnd 9363 154
1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 999 UNTS 171 79, 103–4, 193, 239
1968 Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, GA Resolution 2931 754 UNTS 75 259
1969 Inter-American Convention on Human Rights PAUTS 36 239
1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1155 UNTS 331 145, 155, 171
1972 UN Convention on Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological, Biological and Toxin Weapons and their Destruction 1015 UNTS 164 280
1973 International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid 1015 UNTS 245 57, 80, 83–4, 259
1977 Protocol Ⅰ Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 8 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims in International Armed Conflict 1125 UNTS 3 79, 176, 264, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 318–19, 321, 322
1977 Protocol Ⅱ Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts 1125 UNTS 609 266, 275, 281–2, 284
1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1833 UNTS 3 3, 86
1984 Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment and Punishment 1465 UNTS 85 80, 86, 103, 256
1988 Vienna Convention Against the Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 1019 UNTS 175 3, 57
1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia, annex to Security Council Resolution 827 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 136, 169, 191, 194, 209, 244, 246, 250, 264–6, 298, 311-12, 319
1994 Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons 9 June 1994 (1994) 33 ILM 1529 258
1994 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Annex to Security Council Resolution 955 127, 128, 129, 130, 131–2, 136, 141, 170, 191, 194, 209–10, 244, 246, 250, 266–7, 298, 311, 319
1995 Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, GA Resolution 49/59 UN Doc. A/RES/49/59 272
1995 Dayton Peace Agreement (1996) 35 ILM 75 138
1997 International Convention on Terrorist Bombings (GA Resolution 52/164, UN Doc. A/RES/52/164) 286, 315
1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court A/Conf.183/9 5, 34, 59, 74–5, 79, 143–67, 171–87, 193, 194, 195, 198, 222–7, 244–5, 253–60, 268–83, 299–308, 312–16, 320–5
2001 Agreement Between the United Nations and Sierra Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court 62
2001 Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone 62–4, 170, 179, 229–30, 261, 284, 301, 316, 325
2003 Draft Agreement Between the UN and the Royal Government of Cambodia Concerning the Prosecution Under Cambodian Law of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea 67–8, 237
AD | Annual Digest of Public International Law Cases |
AJCL | American Journal of Comparative Law |
AJIL | American Journal of International Law |
Alb LR | Albany Law Review |
All ER | All England Reports |
AP | Additional Protocol |
Arizona JICL | Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law |
ASIL | American Society of International Law |
ASP | Assembly of States Parties |
AUJILP | American University Journal of International Law and Politics |
BCE | Before Common Era |
BFSP | British Foreign and State Papers |
BUILJ | Boston University International Law Journal |
BYBIL | British Yearbook of International Law |
Cal LR | California Law Review |
CWRJIL | Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law |
CE | Common Era |
CLF | Criminal Law Forum |
CLJ | Cambridge Law Journal |
CLP | Current Legal Problems |
CMR | Court Martial Reports |
Columbia JTL | Columbia Journal of Transnational Law |
Columbia LR | Columbia Law Review |
Connecticut JIL | Connecticut Journal of International Law |
Cornell ILJ | Cornell International Law Journal |
Cr App R | Criminal Appeal Reports |
Crim LR | Criminal Law Review |
CSCE | Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe |
CWILJ | California Western International Law Journal |
CWRILJ | Case Western Reserve International Journal |
CYBIL | Canadian Yearbook of International Law |
De Paul LR | De Paul Law Review |
Dickinson JIL | Dickinson Journal of International Law |
DJCIL | Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law |
DJILP | Denver Journal of International Law and Policy |
ECHR | European Court of Human Rights |
EIA | Ethics and International Affairs |
EJCCLCJ | European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice |
EJIL | European Journal of International Law |
Emory ILR | Emory International Law Review |
EPIL | Rudolf Bernhardt et al. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Public International Law (New York: Elsevier, 1995) |
FA | Foreign Affairs |
FEC | Far Eastern Commission |
FFWA | Fletcher Forum of World Affairs |
Fordham ILJ | Fordham International Law Journal |
FRY | Federal Republic of Yugoslavia |
GA | General Assembly |
GC | Geneva Convention |
GYBIL | German Yearbook of International Law |
Harvard HRLJ | Harvard Human Rights Law Journal |
Harvard ILJ | Harvard International Law Journal |
HRLJ | Human Rights Law Journal |
HRLR | Human Rights Law Review |
HRQ | Human Rights Quarterly |
IA | International Affairs |
ICC | International Criminal Court |
ICCPR | International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights |
ICJ | International Court of Justice |
ICLQ | International and Comparative Law Quarterly |
ICRC | International Committee of the Red Cross |
ICTR | International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda |
ICTY | International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia |
ILA | International Law Association |
ILC | International Law Commission |
ILM | International Legal Materials |
ILQ | International Law Quarterly |
ILR | International Law Reports |
ILSAJICL | International Law Students’ Association Journal of International and Comparative Law |
IMT | International Military Tribunal |
IP | International Politics |
IRRC | International Review of the Red Cross |
Israel LR | Israel Law Review |
IYBHR | Israel Yearbook on Human Rights |
JACL | Journal of Armed Conflict Law |
JCSL | Journal of Conflict and Security Law |
JHIL | Journal of the History of International Law |
JICJ | Journal of International Criminal Justice |
KCLJ | King’s College Law Journal |
L. Ed. | Lawyer’s Edition |
LCP | Law and Contemporary Problems |
LJ | Law Journal |
LJIL | Leiden Journal of International Law |
LLAICLR | Loyola & Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review |
LNTS | League of Nations Treaty Series |
LPICT | Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals |
LQR | Law Quarterly Review |
LR | Law Reports |
LRTWC | Law Reports, Trials of War Criminals |
LSI | Law and Social Inquiry |
Mich LR | Michigan Law Review |
Military LR | Military Law Review |
MJIL | Michigan Journal of International Law |
MLR | Modern Law Review |
MPYBUNL | Max Planck Yearbook of United National Law |
MULR | Melbourne University Law Review |
NELR | New England Law Review |
NI | The National Interest |
NILR | Netherlands International Law Review |
Nordic JIL | Nordic Journal of International Law |
NYIL | Netherlands Yearbook of International Law |
NYLSJICL | New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law |
NYUJILP | New York University Journal of International Law and Policy |
OJLS | Oxford Journal of Legal Studies |
OLA | UN Office of Legal Affairs |
OLR | Oregon Law Review |
OTP | Office of the Prosecutor |
Pace ILR | Pace International Law Review |
PCIJ | Permanent Court of International Justice |
PREP Com | Preparatory Committee for an International Criminal Court/Preparatory Commission |
Proc. | Proceedings |
Proceedings ASIL | Proceedings of the American Society of International Law |
RADIC | African Review of International and Comparative Law |
RdC | Receuil des Cours, l’Académie de Droit International |
Rep. | |
RIAA | Reports of International Arbitration Awards |
RIDMDG | Révue Internationale de Droit Militaire et Law Droit de la Guerre |
RIDP | Révue International de Droit Penal |
SALJ | South African Law Journal |
SAYBIL | South African Yearbook of International Law |
SCSL | Special Court for Sierra Leone |
SDJJ | San Diego Justice Journal |
SFOR | Stabilisation Force |
SFRY | Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia |
SOFA | Status of Forces Agreement |
TGS | Transactions of the Grotius Society |
TILJ | Texas International Law Journal |
TLCP | Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems |
TLR | Texas Law Review |
TS | Treaty Series |
Tulane LR | Tulane Law Review |
TWC | Trials of War Criminals |
UCDJIL | University of California, Davis, Journal of International Law |
UKTS | United Kingdom Treaty Series |
UNTAET | United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor |
UNTS | United Nations Treaty Series |
UNWCC | United Nations War Crimes Commission |
UPLR | University of Pennsylvania Law Review |
USCMA | United States Court Marital Appeals |
Vil. LR | Villanova Law Review |
VJIL | Virginia Journal of International Law |
VJTL | Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law |
WCR | World Court Reports |
Yale JIL | Yale Journal of International Law |
Yale LJ | Yale Law Journal |
YBIHL | Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law |
YBILC | Yearbook of the International Law Commission |