abakuá, Afro−Cuban 11
Acapulco, Mexico, Africans in 2, 43, 97
Acosta−Rubio, Raúl 161–162
Acosta Saignes, Miguel 127, 129
Acuña de Figueroa, Francisco 102
Adamwa−Ubangui language family 199
affirmation, double, see double affirmation
Africa, slavery 20–21
African−American English, United States 5, 85, 114, 148, 213, 301, 303
Africanisms in Spanish 4
Afro−Asiatic language family 198
Afro−Caribbean Spanish 276
Afro−Cuban language 8, 234–236, 243, 251–253, 259, 263, 268, 276, 281, 285, 299, 301
Afro−Lusitanian elements in Spanish texts 72–73
Afro−Peruvian language 242, 243, 264, 268
Afro−Portuguese pidgin 6, 74
Afro−Puerto Rican language 235–236, 276, 299
Aguado, Simón 41, 42, 82–83, 218
Aguirre Beltrán, Gonzalo 47, 138, 142
Aimes, Hubert 103
Ajuda 38
Akan languages and peoples 18, 19, 39, 60, 97, 106, 200, 202, 203, 214, 217, 218, 247, 256, 269, 271
Alba, Julio 162–163
Alix, Juan Antonio 149, 174–175
Alleyne, Mervyn 206–208, 219
Alonso, Manuel 184
Althoff, F. Daniel 138
Alvarez de Peralta, José 112
Alvarez Nazario, Manuel 115, 147, 178, 183, 223, 233, 236, 283, 290, 294
Alzola, Concepción Teresa 153
(a)mí, subject pronoun 30, 53, 54, 57, 58, 67, 73, 82, 93, 158, 162, 249, 275, 276, 303
Amaro, Ana Maria 70
Andalusia 32
slavery in 43, 74
Spanish dialects 76, 78, 87, 89, 189, 218, 220, 222, 223, 225, 240, 251, 252, 298
Andean region 9, 251, 252, 279
Andrews, George Reid 103
Angola 11, 25, 27–29, 34–38, 41, 44, 47, 48, 55, 60, 66, 101, 103, 115, 120–122, 126, 198, 200, 219, 242, 247, 258
Portuguese dialects 20, 29, 56, 63, 70, 230, 232, 241, 257, 258, 261, 268, 294
Angola Maconde, Juan 138
Angolar creole language 226
Annobón creole language and people 6, 54, 55, 66, 69, 108, 219, 220, 226, 228, 231, 235, 270, 275, 299
Arabic language and people 18, 24, 198, 266
Aragón, slavery in 19
Arará language and people 11, 105, 122, 126, 198
Araujo, Juan de 130
Ardra 36, 66, 105
Aretz de Ramón, Isabel 193
Argentina
Africans in 2, 46, 100–103, 129, 142–145, 216, 220, 229, 243, 258
Italians in 4
Spanish dialects 260, 295, 300
Arguin Island 24, 36
Arizona, Africans in 2
Arona, Juan de 134
articles
definite 57, 141, 149, 179, 180, 196, 267–268, 275, 295, 297, 300
indefinite 275, 297, 300
asiento, slaving monopoly 33, 35, 37, 44, 107, 121, 125
Asturian language 75
Atkins, Guy 208
Atlantic−Congo language family 199
Atlantic language family, see West Atlantic language family
Austen, Ralph 18
Auto de Vicente Anes Joeira, anonymous play 58
Avellaneda, Francisco de 88
Avila, Spain, slavery in 43
Ayacucho, Peru 133
Aymara language and people 137–138
Azevedo, Rafael Avila de 69
Bachiller y Morales, Antonio 146, 154–156, 284
Badajoz, Spain 73
Bahia, Brazil, Africans in 46
Bai, invariant form of ir 58, 61
Bakongo, see Congo
Balearic Islands, slavery in 15
Ballagas, Emilio 168
Bambara language and people 106, 199, 246, 264, 266, 267, 269, 271
Bantu languages 9, 19, 70, 200–201, 204, 242, 247, 266
Bari, slavery in 15
Barlovento region, Venezuela 285
Barnet, Miguel 169, 290
Basque country, Spain, slavery in 43
Basque dialect of Spanish 88, 92, 93
Basque language and people 3
Bassein, India 31
Batalha, Graciete Nogueira 69
Batavia, Indonesia 30
Benavides, Celso 177
Benguela 28, 34, 37, 103, 257
Benin
modern nation 11, 26, 32, 34–40, 44, 66, 103, 105, 199
ancient kingdom 18, 39, 40
Benítez del Cristo, Ignacio 293
Berber language and people 24, 198
Berbesi language and people 47
Berbice, Guyana 34, 246
Berbice Dutch creole 106, 199, 246–247
Bergman, Hannah 88
Biafada, see Biafara language and people
Biafara language and people 47, 115, 126, 247
Bibí language and people 105
Bijago language and people 248
Bilad Ghana 23
Bioko (Fernando Poo) 211
Bissau 25
Black English, US, see African−American English
black Portuguese 62
Bogotá, Colombia 91, 240
Bola de Nieve, see Villa, Ignacio
Bolivia
Africans in 1, 5, 46–48, 95, 100, 127, 129, 137–138, 187
Spanish dialects 131, 137
Bologna, slavery in 15
Bombay 30, 181
Bonny, Nigeria 44
Bonó, Pedro 112–113
Bosch, Gerardus 107
Bosch, Juan 175
Boyd−Bowman, Peter 185
bozal, definition 5
bozal Portuguese 29
bozal Spanish, hypotheses regarding formation 6
bozals, used in Catalan 15
Braccesi, Alessandro 16–17
Bram, see Bran language and people
Bran language and people 47, 247
Braschi, Juan 184
Brásio, António 66
Brau, Salvador 236
Brazil
Africans in 10, 25, 28, 29, 34–39, 44–46, 48, 49, 105, 126, 128, 258
Afro−Portuguese dialects 29, 56, 62
Portuguese dialects, vernacular 57, 93, 216, 223, 224, 255–258, 268, 294
British, slave trade, see English, slave trade
Bubi language and people 211, 257, 261, 264, 269
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Africans in 6, 37, 38, 43, 48, 81, 100–103, 126, 127, 242, 243
Spanish dialect 221, 225
Bujeba language and people 211, 257
Burgos, Spain, slavery in 43
Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) 199
Caamaño de Fernández, Vicenta 177
Cabada, Juan de la 141
Caballero, Ramón 178–179
Cabinda language and people 200
Cabrales Arteaga, José 71–73
Cabrera, Lydia 6, 8, 106, 163–168, 259, 273, 292, 293
Cabrera, Manuel 151, 292
Cadilla de Martínez, María 180–182
Cádiz, Spain, slavery in 43
Calabar region, Nigeria 36, 37, 44, 105, 115
Calcagno, Francisco 153, 160–161
Calderón de la Barca, Pedro 87–88
Calicut 30
caló 4, 96
Cambunda 96, 103
Cameroon 201, 247
Campeche, Mexico 97, 99
Canary Islands 15, 25, 45
Spanish dialects 89, 189, 220, 222, 262, 298
Cancioneiro geral, Garcia de Resende 40, 52–55, 57, 71, 72, 75
cancionero, song collections 8
Cangá 96
Cão, Diego 26
capataces 11
Cape Verde
creole language and people 6, 58, 70, 108, 162, 219, 262, 270–272, 274, 285, 287
Islands 25, 32, 34, 39, 45, 47, 55, 122, 203
Peninsula, Senegal 39
Carabalí language and people 11, 44, 96, 105–106, 115, 122, 126, 198, 246
Carden, Guy 114
Caribbean, Spanish dialects 225, 251, 252, 261
Caro de Mallén, Ana 88
Carpentier, Alejo 108, 165, 170
Carrera Vergara, Eudocio 135, 216
Carreras, Carlos 170
Cartagena de Indias, Colombia 10, 12, 35, 43, 121, 258
Carthaginian language and people 3
Casamance 38, 248
Castellanos, Jorge and Isabel 104, 106, 146, 284
Castile
slavery in 43
Spanish dialects 230, 240
Catalan language 15
Catalonia, slavery in 15
Caviedes, Juan del Valle 131
Ceuta 23
Ceylon, see Sri Lanka
Chabacano (Philippine Creole Spanish) 154, 163, 181, 220, 248, 282, 297
Chasca, Edmund de 77, 233
Chaudenson, Robert 279–281, 286
Chaul 29, 31
Chávez Franco, Modesto 185
Chevai 29
Chiado, Antônio Ribeiro 57–58, 219
Chile 4, 46, 47
Pacific island labor 8
China Coast Pidgin English 303
Chincha, Peru 216
Chinese pidgin Spanish 301
Chinese, language and people in Latin America 4, 49, 108–109, 148, 303
Chinyanga language and people 264
Chocó region, Colombia 48, 56, 76, 121, 258, 260, 281, 283, 285, 293, 294
Chota Valley, Ecuador 119, 185, 187, 281–283, 285, 294, 295
Ciplijauskaité, Biruté 83
Ciudad Real, Spain, slavery in 43
Claramonte, Andrés de 86, 90, 218, 251
Clements, J. Clancy 51
clitics, subject 250, 262, 265
Cochin 29–31
Cocoliche 81, 225
cofradía, Afro−Hispanic brotherhoods 19, 60, 72, 96
Colombia
Africans in 1, 5, 6, 10, 12, 35, 46, 48, 95, 118–123, 127, 129, 187–189
Spanish dialects 91, 93, 221, 222, 224, 263, 295
Colón, Panama 263
Combe language and people 211, 257, 261
Comes, Juan Bautista 91, 93
concordance, loss of 84, 137, 148, 149, 151, 162, 171, 179, 189, 275, 276, 300, 303
Congo, ethnic designation, kingdom 11, 19–21, 25–28, 44, 47, 48, 51, 55, 63, 96, 99, 101, 103, 105–107, 115, 119, 121, 122, 126, 144, 147, 192, 242, 247, 263
Congo−Benue languages 9, 148, 200, 245, 247, 250, 254, 256
conjugated verbs, loss of 64, 67
consonants, syllable−final in African languages 214
Consuegra Guzmán, Ismael 292
contramayoral 11
copula 30, 53, 54, 57–61, 65–70, 78, 80, 82, 84, 87, 89, 93, 135, 148, 151, 160, 162, 170, 178, 181, 182, 190, 193, 261, 269, 275, 276, 296, 297
Córdoba, Spain 18, 83
slavery in 43
Coromandel Coast 31
Coromantine 36, 38
Correa, Gaspar 49
Cortés Cortés, Fernando 74
Cossío, José M. de 71, 72
Cotarelo y Morí, Emilio 77, 81, 86
creole languages in the Spanish Caribbean 116–117
Crespo y Borbón, José (Creto Gangá) 147, 152–154, 162, 293
Creto Gangá, see Crespo y Borbón, José
Cruz, Celia 169
Cruz, Mary 152, 153
Cruz, Sor Juana Inés 5, 85, 91–93, 139, 140, 219, 224
Cuajicuinalapa, Mexico 98, 142
Cuango language and people 126
Cuba
Africans in 2, 5–8, 10–12, 45, 46, 49, 96, 99, 103–111, 5, 126, 127, 129, 135, 145–172, 178, 181, 189, 190, 199, 206–207, 242–243, 246, 259, 261, 278–280, 283, 284, 301
Chinese in 4
Spanish dialects 221, 243, 260, 263, 295
Cuijla, see Cuajicuinalapa
Cumaná, Venezuela 35
Curaçao 8, 34–35, 46, 107–108, 113, 192, 275
Curtin, Philip 45–48, 104
Cuzco, Peru 91, 95, 132, 240
CV syllable structure 228
⁄d⁄
elision 140
realized as stop [d]⁄flap [r] 55–56, 58, 59, 67, 75, 79, 82, 89, 93, 130, 131, 135, 140, 143, 148, 186, 187, 190, 192, 194, 196, 222, 303
Dahomey 44, 105, 115
Damão 29, 31, 68
De la Guardia, Roberto 125
De la Torriente, Lolo 159
Degetau, Federico 180
Delicado, Francisco 80–81
Demerara 34
demonstratives, postposed 298
Denmark 38
Derkes, Eleuterio 179
Deschamps Chapeaux, Pedro 159
Diola language and people 106, 199, 247, 248, 256, 261, 264, 266, 271
diphthongs in verb forms 80
direct objects 137, 253–255
Diu 29, 31, 68
Dogon language family 199
Domínguez, Luis Arturo 192, 193
Dominican Republic
Africans in 10, 12, 35, 36, 46, 56, 76, 99, 111–115, 148, 172–177, 279, 280
Spanish dialects 91, 93, 171, 181, 182, 213, 221, 222, 224, 234, 258–260, 263, 281, 282, 285, 293, 295, 301–303
Dondo 27
double affirmation 259
Dunzo, Annette Ivory 223
Duque de Estrada, Nicolás 145–146, 284, 293
durative aspect 292, 299
Dutch slave trade 18, 33–35
Eannes, Gil 23
Easter Island forced labor 8
Ecuador
Africans in 6, 46, 48, 118, 184–187
Spanish dialects 91, 93, 224, 226, 295, 300
Edo language group 200, 202, 214, 247
Efik language and people 11, 44, 106, 115, 148, 179, 200, 202, 214, 215, 218, 247, 264, 266, 267, 269, 271
elle⁄nelle as third person pronoun 149, 151, 154, 160, 176, 182, 236, 276, 294–295
Elmina, fort 18, 25, 26, 34, 39, 47, 106
Eltis, David 46, 103, 105, 113, 115
Encina, Juan del 74
English creoles 114–115, 177, 190, 191, 263, 265, 282, 301
English, slave trade 35–37
entremés, Afro−Hispanic 8
epenthetic vowels 216, 217
Equatorial Guinea 56, 92–93, 211–214, 222, 224, 230, 232, 241, 257, 300
Escalante, Aquiles 121
Escalona, Rafael 179
Esmeraldas, Ecuador 119–120, 185–187
Essequibo 34
Estupiñán Bass, Nelson 6
Ethiopia 18
eu as subject pronoun 58
Ewe⁄Fon language and people 11, 44, 67, 97, 105, 193, 200, 203, 210, 217, 247, 263–266, 270, 271
existential verbs 297
Extremadura, slavery in 43, 74
Extremeño dialect 75, 218
fala de preto, Afro−Portuguese imitations 52, 59, 60, 62, 219
Fang language and people 211, 214, 257, 261
Fante language and people 213, 261, 264, 266, 271
Fanti, see Fante language and people
Fernandes, Gaspar 91, 139
Fernández, Francisco 293
Fernández, Lucas 74
Fernando Poo 110, 247, 257
Ferrara, Mario 16
Ferraz, Luis Ivens 226
Ferreras, Ramón Alberto 175
Fiote language 261, 264
first person plural verb forms as invariant 85, 87, 89, 253, 275
Florence, slavery in 15, 16
Florence, Italian dialect 16–17
Fongbe, see Ewe⁄Fon language and people
Fontanella de Weinberg, Beatriz 221
foreigner talk 73, 77
Franceschi, Víctor 189, 190
French
creoles 110, 126, 128, 170–171, 177, 191, 263, 282, 301, 303
language and people 3
slave trade 33, 35
Frías Gálvez, Antonio 175
Fuentes, Manuel Atanasio 134–135
Fula language and people 44, 115, 126, 199, 205, 247, 248, 264, 266, 267, 269
future marking 60, 271, 272, 293
Gã language and people 200, 247, 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269
Gabon 201, 214
Galicia, slavery in 43
Galician language 75, 92, 93, 262
Gálvez Ronceros, Antonio 131, 216
Gama, Vasco da 30, 52, 54
Gambia 36–38
Gangá language and people 105–107, 115
gauchos 1, 100, 101
Gbe language group 200
gemination of consonants 147
gender agreement, loss of 61, 275, 297, 300
genitive constructions in African languages 269–270
Genoa slavery in 15
German language and people 4
Ghana
ancient kingdom 18
modern nation 25, 26, 39, 60, 106, 199, 210
Girón, Socorro 184
Goa 29–31, 69, 181
Gold Coast 20, 22, 25, 26, 34–37, 39, 47, 60, 106, 115, 121, 125–127, 129
Gómez de Toledo, Gaspar 81–82
Gonçalvez, Antam 24
Góngora, Luis de 41, 42, 83–85, 91, 93, 218, 223, 235, 260
González, Carlisle 177
González Rubí, Pedro Antonio 89
Goodman, Morris 51
Gorée Island 34, 36–38, 125
Grain Coast 39, 44, 217, 246, 247
Granda, Germán de 71, 107, 163, 178, 193, 288–290
Greek language and people 3
Green, Katherine 182
Guadalajara, Spain, slavery in 43
Guadeloupe 36, 280
Guanche language and people 15
Guatemala
Africans in 5, 48, 139
Pacific island labor 8
Guatemala City 91
Guerrero, Manuel Vicente 90
Guete, Jaime de 82
Guillén, Nicolás 6
Guinea, designations 40–41
Guinea−Bissau 25, 35, 38, 47, 122, 199, 202, 248–249
Kriyôl language 70, 219, 263, 270, 271, 275
Portuguese dialect 230
Guirao, Ramón 168
Güiria Peninsula, Venezuela 259, 260, 263, 303
Gullah language and people 99, 213, 237, 240, 266
Gur language family 199
Gutiérrez de Padilla, Juan 139
Guyana 246
Guyanese Creole 8
Guzmán Navarro, Arturo 125
Gypsy, see Roma language and people
habitual aspect 271, 292
habla de negros, Afro−Hispanic imitations 52, 74, 76, 77, 79, 82–84, 86, 87, 89–90, 92–94, 129, 137, 139, 187, 218, 220, 223, 229
hablar congo, see negros congos, Panama
Haiti 1, 11, 44, 108, 169, 279, 303
Creole language 8, 58, 108, 110–111, 113–114, 116–117, 172–173, 183, 191, 213, 236, 251, 259, 263, 265, 282, 295, 301–303
French dialect 302
revolution 10, 99
Hassaurek, Frederick 185
Hatherly, Ana 59
Hausa language and people 214, 264, 266, 267, 269
Havana, Cuba 10, 35, 43, 126, 127
Heine, Bernd 245
Henríquez Ureña, Pedro 114, 234
Henry, Prince of Portugal 23
Herskovits, Melville 213
Hesseling, D. C. 107
Holm, John 67, 287, 291
Honduras, Africans in 1, 2, 35, 48
Hong Kong 51
Huelva, slavery in 43
Humboldt, Baron A. von 103, 126, 128
Iberian language and people 3
Ibibio language and people 106, 179
Ibo language 271
Ica, Peru 131, 135
Idoma language group 200
Igbo language and people 11, 44, 97, 106, 115, 148, 200, 202, 247, 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269
Ijo language and people 44, 105, 106, 148, 179, 199, 246, 248, 254, 256, 261, 266, 267, 269, 271
Ijoid language family 199
imperfective aspect 292, 299
in situ questions, see questions, in situ
India, Portuguese colonies in 29, 30, 68
indigenous lexical items in Spanish 9
Indonesia 30, 51
infinitives
uninflected 53, 54, 58, 73, 80, 89, 141, 147, 151, 162, 171, 178, 180, 184, 187, 188, 195, 253, 272
with preverbal subject 141, 298
ingenio, sugar plantation 11
interrogation, see questions
interrogative constructions in African languages 260–263
invariant verb forms 61, 70
ir 58
Italian language and people 3, 4, 93
Italy, slavery in 14–16, 18, 19
Ivory Coast 15, 26, 35, 38, 39, 199, 201
Jamaica 49, 108, 118
Creole language 8, 108, 163, 263, 303
English dialect 302
Jamieson, Martín 190
Jammes, Robert 83
Japan 30, 31
language and people 4
Jiménez Rivera, Chery 176
Jiménez Torres, Julieta 92–94
João, king of Portugal 23
Johnson, Lemuel 52
Judeo Spanish 3–4
judezmo, see Judeo Spanish
Jurado Noboa, Fernando 119, 120
juruminga⁄jurumingue 149
Kanem, kingdom 18
Kanura language 264
Kasanje kingdom 28
Kele language and people 269
Kenya 32
Kikongo language 11, 19, 21, 25–27, 29, 44, 60, 65, 66, 96, 97, 101, 103, 106, 115, 144, 148, 181, 199, 200, 202, 218, 220, 226, 237–238, 247, 254, 256, 258, 260, 261, 264, 265, 267–269, 294
Kimbundu language 28, 29, 44, 60, 66, 97, 101, 103, 200, 202, 208, 218, 220, 226, 238, 247, 256–258, 260, 261, 263, 265, 267–269, 294
Kituba language 231
Kongo, see Congo
Korlai 30, 181
Kpelle language and people 199, 214, 247
Krio language (Sierra Leone) 206, 207
Kru languages and peoples 9, 44, 199, 204, 217, 247
Kwa languages and peoples 9, 26, 38, 44, 56, 67, 70, 115, 148, 200–202, 204, 246, 247, 250, 254, 256, 259, 270, 273
⁄λ⁄, delateralization 56, 58, 60, 67, 78, 80, 82, 131
⁄l⁄ and ⁄d⁄, interchange 53, 66, 75, 87, 138
La Paz, Bolivia 91
Ladefoged, Peter 217
ladino, see Judeo Spanish
Laguerre, Enrique 182–183
Lapesa, Rafael 163, 289
Larrazábal Blanco, Carlos 173
Latin language 267
Laurence, Kemlin 7, 278
Lenca language, influence on Spanish 252
Lenz, Rodolfo 234
León, Spain, slavery in 43
Leonese language 75, 218
Liberia 39, 44, 199, 201
licencia, slaving monopoly 43–44
Liguria
slavery in 15
language and people 3
Lima, Peru 91, 126
Lingala language 231, 257, 264
língua de guiné Afro−Portuguese imitations 60
Lingua Franca, Mediterranean 80–81, 198, 274
Lipski, John 16–17, 130, 154, 288
liquid consonants
in African languages 217
neutralization in Afro−Iberian language 59, 66, 147, 189, 196, 217–220, 241, 300
Lisbon, Africans in 16, 42, 55, 60
literatura de cordel 61, 71
Llanos Allende, Victorio 180, 183
Loango 101, 121, 126, 128, 192, 193
Lombardia slavery in 15
López Albújar, Enrique 135–136, 216, 268
López Prudencio, J. 75
Louisiana Creole French 174
Lower Guinea 201–202
Luanda 25, 27, 28, 34, 37, 66
Lubolo 103
Lucumí (Yoruba) language and people 11, 44, 96, 105, 107, 126, 148, 161, 206, 207
Luis, William 159
lunarios 61
Macao 30–32, 51, 69, 108–109
Portuguese creole 301, 303
Machado Filho, Aires da Mata 229
Madden, Richard 11
Madeira Islands 25, 45
Magariños Cervantes, Alejandro 101
Majorca, Africans in 15, 19
Malacca 30–32, 69
Málaga, slavery in 43
Malaysia 30, 51
Mali
ancient kingdom 18, 23
modern nation 41, 199
Malinke language and people 47
Malpica la Barca, Domingo 163, 284, 293
Mande languages and people 9, 198–199, 201, 202, 246, 248–250, 253, 255, 270, 271
Mandinga, see Mandinka language and people
Mandinka language and people 24, 39, 40, 44, 96, 97, 99, 103, 106–107, 115, 119, 122, 126, 199, 202, 214, 217, 246, 248, 249, 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270
Mangalore 29, 68
manicongo 19, 22, 25–27, 63
Manila 43
Manjaku language and people 248
Manrique Cabrera, Francisco 183
Manzano, Juan Francisco 284
María Lionza, Afro−Venezuelan cult 127, 129
Marrero Aristy, Ramón 149, 175
Martinique 36, 280
más nunca, más nada, más nadie 298
mayoral 11
mayordomo 11
Mazatlán, Mexico, Africans in 2
Mbundu people 27, 28
McWhorter, John 7, 281–286
Megenney, William 138, 213, 223, 258, 291, 294
Melaka, see Malacca
Mende language and people 44, 199, 204, 217, 246, 249, 253, 255, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270
Méndez Quiñones, Ramón 182
Menéndez y Pelayo, Marcelino 80
Merlín, Condesa de, see Santa Cruz y Montalvo, María de las Mercedes
Mesquita, Alfredo 212
metathesis 63, 66, 149, 229–230
Mexican−American Spanish dialects 78
Mexico
Africans in 1, 2, 5, 46–49, 91, 95, 97–100, 111, 127, 129, 138–143, 187, 220, 285
Pacific island labor 8
Spanish dialects 221, 222, 295, 300
Mexico City, Spaniards in 9, 91, 240
mí, subject pronoun, see (a)mí
Milan, slavery in 15
mim, subject pronoun, see (a)mí
Mina, language and people 60, 103, 105–106, 115, 122, 126, 198, 203
Mintz, Sidney 278
Mira de Amescua, Antonio 86
Mombasa 32
Moncín, Luis 89
Montejo, Esteban 106, 169–170
Montevideo, Uruguay
Africans in 6, 39, 43, 81, 100–103, 242, 243
Spanish dialect 225
Moors (in the Iberian Peninsula) language and people 3, 18, 77, 92, 93, 274
Moreau de Saint−Méry, M. L. 114
Moreno Fraginals, Manuel 105–106
Moreto, Agustín 88
Morocco 23
moros, see Moors (in the lberian Peninsula) language and people
Morúa Delgado, Martín 159–160
Moscoso Puello, Francisco 175
Mosonyi, Esteban Emilio 192
Mota, Henrique da 53–54, 248
Mozambique 32, 45, 47, 103, 126, 200, 247, 257
Portuguese dialects 20, 56, 63, 230, 232, 257
Mozarabic language and people 3
Mpumbu language and people 27
Muhammad, Jameelah 98
Murcia
slavery in 43
Spanish dialect 89, 220
musseques, popular neighborhoods of Luanda, Angola 261, 268, 294
⁄ñ⁄, denasalization 58, 75
Nagô language and people 198
Nahuatl language, influence on Spanish 252
Ñañiguismo 161
Naples, slavery in 15
Naro, Anthony 51
nasal vowels 58
nasalization, intrusive 78, 82, 85, 87, 90, 93, 135, 147, 178, 233–239
Naxara, Joseph de 66, 69
Ndjuka language 237
Ndongo 27, 28
Ndowé language and people 211, 257, 261
Negapatão 29, 31
negation
double 62, 110, 194, 256–260, 293–294, 302
in African languages 255–258
postverbal 62, 257, 258
Negerhollands language 8, 107, 108, 116–117, 163, 303
Negra lectora, anonymous play 42
negrillo songs 8
negro catedrático, comic figure 8, 136, 151–152, 179
negros congos, Panama 17, 124, 148, 149, 220, 282, 295
negros curros, Cuba 286
Netherlands Antilles 6
neutralization of ⁄l⁄ and ⁄r⁄, see liquid consonants, neutralization in Afro-lberian language
New Mexico
Africans in 2
Spanish dialects 294
Ngala language and people 269
Ngola 27, 28
Ngombe language 269
Niger−Congo language family 198–199
Nigeria 11, 18, 32, 36, 39, 40, 44, 105, 115, 121, 148, 179, 199, 247
Niger−Kordofanian language family 198
Nilo−Saharan language family 198
Nombre de Dios, Panama 123
noun phrases 59, 65
null subjects, see subjects, null
number agreement, loss of 275, 297, 300
Nupe language and people 256, 269
Nzinga, rebel queen 28
Nzinga a Nkuwa 26
Nzinga Mbemba 26
obstruent ! liquid clusters 215
onset clusters
in African languages 214–215
reduction 135, 141, 181, 188, 194, 216–217
Ortiz, Adalberto 6
Ortiz, Fernando 8, 109, 148, 156–157, 292
Ortiz López, Luis 150, 171, 191, 282, 294, 303
Os preto astrologo 61
Oscan language and people 3
Otheguy, Ricardo 164, 290
Ovimbundu (Umbundu) people 28, 103, 200, 218, 247, 257, 258, 260
Oyo, kingdom 18
Palacios, Arnaldo 188
palangana, Afro−Peruvian slang 136
palatalization of ⁄s⁄, see ⁄s⁄, palatalization
Palenque de San Basilio, Colombia 6, 12, 56, 121, 122, 187, 189, 258, 263, 275, 278
Palenquero language 6, 58, 59, 70, 76, 108, 140, 162, 181, 189, 192, 195, 213, 218, 220, 228, 231, 235–240, 251, 256–258, 263, 265, 266, 270–272, 277, 282, 285–287, 291, 294–297, 299
palenques, maroon villages 98
Palmer, Colin 97
Panama
Africans in 10, 12, 16–17, 46, 123–126, 148, 149, 191
Spanish dialects 263, 282, 295
West Indians in 124
Papia Kristang language 69
Papiamento language 6, 8, 34, 56, 58, 107, 108, 113, 149, 154, 160, 162, 163, 176, 179, 181, 183–184, 190–193, 210, 213, 231, 234–236, 239, 260, 263, 265, 271, 272, 274, 282, 286, 287, 291, 293–297, 299, 301, 303
paragogic vowels 56–60, 67, 68, 82, 84, 144, 187, 214, 217, 225–227, 241, 294
Paraguay 4, 9, 46, 100, 279, 300
Pardo y Aliaga, Felipe 133–135
Parkvall, Mikael 258
particles, preverbal 68, 141, 298
past tense marking 271, 272, 293
Pastor, Juan 80
payadores 1, 100
Pepper Coast 39
Pereda Valdés, Ildefonso 223
Pérez Cabral, Pedro Andrés 150, 176
Pérez de la Riva, Juan 104
perfective aspect 272, 293
Perl, Matthias 164, 289–291
Pernambuco, Africans in 46
Peru
Africans in 1, 5, 6, 46–49, 95–97, 111, 123, 126–137, 143, 148, 187, 216, 220, 242, 258
Chinese in 4
Pacific island labor 8
Spanish dialects 221, 222, 295, 300
Philippine Creole Spanish, see Chabacano
Phoenician language and people 3
Pichardo, Esteban 99, 109, 146, 150–151, 155, 234, 286, 289
Pidgin English 109–110, 148, 161, 178, 211, 231, 232, 248, 301, 303
Pidgin Portuguese 51
Piemonte, slavery in 15
Pipil language, influence on Spanish 252
Pires, Sebastião 58
Pisa, slavery in 15
plural marking
noun phrases 59–61, 65, 194, 196, 265–267, 296
verb phrases 65, 85
Polynesian forced labor 8
Popayán, Colombia 281
Popó language and people 126
pororó Afro−Dominican dialect 303
Portobelo, Panama 35, 43, 120, 123, 125
Portugal
Africans in 1, 19–20, 62
history of 13, 17, 18
Portuguese−derived creoles, Asia 30
Portuguese language
elements in Afro−Hispanic language 139
words in African languages 19, 207–208
postpositions 274
Potosí 25, 132, 240
pregones, street vendors 8, 144, 212, 216
prenasalized consonants 84, 89, 149
prepositions 171, 274, 297–298, 300
present tense marking 271, 299
Príncipe
creole language 26, 54, 66, 226, 231, 267, 275
Island 33
Proclama que en un cablido de negros congos de la ciudad de La Habana pronunció su presidente, Rey Monfundi Siliman, anonymous document 147–150, 283
prognósticos 61
progressive aspect 271, 272, 292
pronouns
clitic 57, 65, 151, 249, 251–252, 275
invariant 149, 300
object, disjunctive 57, 65, 275, 276, 295, 300
subject 30, 53, 54, 57, 58, 67, 73, 82, 93, 158, 162, 249, 252–253, 265, 275, 296, 297, 303;
invariant 296
;Puebla, Mexico 91
Puerto Rico
Africans in 6, 10, 45, 46, 49, 115–117, 129, 148, 172, 177–184, 190, 278, 279, 301
Spanish dialects 221, 233, 263, 294, 295
Quechua language in contact with Spanish 133, 252, 260
questions
in situ 109, 260–262
non−inverted 262–263, 295
yes−no 263–265
Quevedo, Francisco de 66, 88, 90, 221
Quiñones de Benavente, Luis 88–89
⁄r⁄
loss of final 53, 56, 59, 67, 76, 82, 139–141, 143, 186, 187, 191, 196, 221–222, 242, 300
realized as [l] 59, 61, 66, 67, 82, 84, 85, 87–90, 93, 109, 131, 135, 137, 138, 140, 143, 186, 187, 192, 220
⁄r⁄−⁄rr⁄, neutralization 241, 300
Raimundo, Jacques 230
Ramón y Rivera, Luis Felipe 193
Ramos, Arthur 229
Ramos, José Antonio 161
Rawley, James 46
Reinecke, John 286, 291
Reinosa, Rodrigo de 29, 40, 71–73, 248, 252, 267, 268
Resende, Garcia de 40, 52, 252
Río de la Plata
Africans in 2, 8, 28, 45, 46, 242, 288
language of 102–103, 243
Spanish dialects 222
Río de Oro 24
Río Muni 257
Robertson, Irvine 247
Rodney, Walter 25
Rodríguez Demorizi, Emilio 172, 174
Rodríguez de Nolla, Olga 193
Rodríguez Herrera, Esteban 158
Roma language and people 4, 87, 89, 92, 93
Rome
ancient empire 14
slavery in 15
Romero, Fernando 129, 233
Ronga language and people 264
Rosario, Rubén del 233
Rossi y Rubí, Joseph 96
Rowlands, E. C. 249
Rueda, Lope de 29, 42, 70, 74, 76–79, 85, 88, 155–156, 159, 218, 223, 252, 262, 267
Ruíz García, Armanda 162
Russell, P. E. 71, 72
⁄s⁄, aspiration 141, 148, 187
⁄s⁄
loss of final 56–57, 59, 61, 65, 73, 77–78, 82–85, 87, 89, 90, 92, 93, 109, 132, 137, 139, 140, 143–144, 186, 187, 189, 196, 223–225, 241–242, 300
palatalization 53, 73, 81, 82
sa as Afro−Iberian copula 53, 57–61, 65–70, 73, 78, 80, 82, 84, 85, 87, 89, 93, 193, 275, 297
sainete, Afro−Hispanic 8
Sã qui turo, anonymous song 59
Saint−Domingue 1, 10, 36, 46, 49, 111, 115, 279, 280
Salamanca 74
Salvador, Gregorio 223
sam as first person singular of ser 65
Samaná, Dominican Republic 112, 114, 148, 172, 174, 177, 259, 303
San Basilio de Palenque, see Palenque de San Basilio, Colombia
Sánchez de Badajoz, Diego 73–76, 218, 223, 224
Sandoval, Alonso de 106, 122–123, 288–289
Sango language and people 199, 256, 261, 264
Santa Cruz, María de 163, 292
Santa Cruz, Nicomedes 6, 96, 268
Santa Cruz y Montalvo, María de las Mercedes 157–158
santar⁄sentar as Afro−Iberian copula 58
santería, Afro−Cuban 11, 207
Santillana, Gabriel de 140
Santo Domingo, see Dominican Republic
São Tomé
creole language 6, 26, 29, 54, 66, 70, 84, 108, 154, 181, 219, 220, 226, 228, 231, 235, 258, 263, 270, 275, 285, 287, 294, 299
Island 25, 33, 41, 45, 48, 55, 122, 138, 219, 288
Portuguese dialect 230
Saramaccan language 34, 85, 206, 207, 213, 219, 228, 299
Sardinia, slavery in 15
Sarró López, Pilar 77
Savoia, Rafael 120
sayagués literary dialect 73, 75, 87, 88, 93, 218
Schuchardt, Hugo 68, 155, 234, 284
Schwegler, Armin 258, 260, 282, 294
second person pronouns 295
Sena language and people 264
Senegal 38, 103, 199
Senegambia 25, 33, 34, 40, 44, 47, 48, 127, 129, 246
Sephardic Jews 34, 113
Sephardic Spanish (see Judeo Spanish)
Serer language and people 47, 199, 205
ser⁄estar, confusion 73, 80, 82
Serial verbs, see verbs, serial
seseo 89
Setse, Theophilus Kwadzo 210
Seville, Africans in 16, 19, 43, 72, 76, 83, 84, 97
Sicily, slavery in 14–16, 18, 19
Sierra Leone 25, 26, 36–40, 44, 52, 103, 115, 199, 203, 206, 207, 247
Silva, Feliciano de 81, 262
Silveira, Fernam da 40, 52–54, 72
Singapore 51
slave, origin of term 14
Slave Coast 32, 35, 38, 39, 44, 66, 70, 103, 121, 126, 127
Smith, Norval 247
Soffia, Bernardo 134
Sojo, Juan Pablo 193
Soko language and people 269
Solís, Antonio 88
son as invariant copula 135, 147–151, 160, 162, 178, 181, 182, 190, 276
Songhai, kingdom 18
Songhay language 264, 266, 267, 269
SOV word order 245–249, 254, 274
Spain
Africans in 17–20
dialects of Spanish 56
history of 13
slavery in 14
Spedding, Alison 138
Sri Lanka 30–31
Srnan Tongo 8, 85, 206, 207, 219
St. Eustatius 34, 107
St. Kitts 36
Stewart, William 114
stress, in African languages 205–206
Suárez y Romero, Anselmo 159, 292
subject pronouns, see pronouns, subject
subjects
grammatical 249–252
null 249
Suevi 3
Surinam 34
Suró, Ramón 150, 154–176
Susu language and people 199, 266
SVO word order 245, 247, 254–255, 274
Swahili language and people 205, 231, 257, 269
syllable structure, African languages 213–216
ta, preverbal particle 68, 151, 162, 163, 178, 189–190, 276, 292, 303
taibo 54
Takrur, kingdom 18
tango 100
teatro bufo, Cuba 8, 152
Tecelaria 29
Tejeira, Gil Blas 190
Teke language and people 27
Temne language and people 44, 199, 217, 247, 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 271
Terranovo 96
Teyssier, Paul 54, 57
third person pronoun as plural marker 296
third person verb forms 65
singular as invariant verb 57, 58, 135, 151, 171, 176, 177, 179, 189, 195, 253, 275, 276, 300
Thornton, John 54, 201
Timor 30, 31
Tiv language and people 217, 247
Tobago 36
Togo 11, 32, 35, 39, 103, 199
Toledo, slavery in 43
tone, lexical in African languages 205–206
tones
European loan−words in African languages 206–208
in Afro−Hispanic language 208–210, 241
Torices, Alonso 91, 130
Trinidad 11, 105, 126, 128, 259, 263, 303
Tristão, Nuno 24
Turin, slavery in 15
Turner, Lorenzo Dow 213
Twi language 264, 266, 267, 269, 271
type A languages 245–246
type B languages 246
Umbria, slavery in 15
Umbrian language and people 3
Umbundu, see Ovimbundu (Umbundu) people
Upper Guinea 201–202
Uruguay
Africans in 46, 100–103, 129, 142–145, 148, 216, 220, 229, 243, 258
Italians in 4
Spanish dialects 295
vai, see bai
Vai language and people 44, 126, 199, 217, 246, 256, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 271
Valdés, Miguelito 169
Valdés Bernal, Sergio 289–290
Valdés−Cruz, Rosa 168
Valencia, Spain
slavery in 15, 19, 43
Spanish dialects 230
Valkhoff, Marius 181, 291
Valladolid, Spain, slavery in 43
Van Name, Addison 286
Vandals 3
Vega, Lope de 41–42, 83–88, 218, 224
Vélez de Guevara, Luis 86, 223
Venezuela
Africans in 6, 10, 12, 35, 43, 46, 49, 126–128, 149, 191–196, 220, 242, 279, 285
Spanish dialects 221, 222, 259, 263, 294, 295, 300, 303
Venice, slavery in 15, 16
Veracruz, Mexico, Africans in 2, 43, 97–99
verbs
African languages 270–274
serial 273
Veres, Ernesto 77–78, 223
Vicente, Gil 40, 54–59, 70, 71, 74, 75, 79, 219, 223, 260, 272
Villa, Ignacio (Bola de Nieve) 169, 292
Villa Mella, Dominican Republic 56, 114, 173, 213, 303
villancicos 90–93
Villaverde, Cirilo 149, 158–159
Visigoths 3
vizcaíno literary dialect, see Basque dialect of Spanish
Von Hagen, Victor 118–120
vos, pronoun 295
vowel harmony 56
Wagner, Max 234, 288, 290
Walsh, Thomas 81
Weber de Kurlat, Frida 71, 72, 75, 77
Weil, Thomas 185
West, Robert 118
West Atlantic language family 9, 44, 197, 199, 201, 202, 204, 246–248, 256, 271
Whinnom, Keith 282
Whitten, Norman 118
Whydah 36, 66, 115
Wilde, José Antonio 101
Williamson, Kay 247
Windward Coast 35–37, 103, 115, 121, 125–127, 217, 247
Wolof language and people 15, 24, 39, 40, 47, 115, 126, 199, 202, 205, 214, 217, 247, 248, 256, 264, 266, 267, 269, 271
word order 64, 137, 245–248
Xhosa language and people 257, 264
Xilenge language and people 264
Yanga 98
yeísmo 56, 89, 131
yes−no questions, see questions, yes−no
yijo (hijo) 160
Yoruba language and people 11, 44, 97, 102, 105, 106, 115, 148, 194, 200, 202, 206, 207, 217, 247, 254, 256, 258, 259, 261, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270, 272–274
Yucatan, Africans in 97–100
Yungas, region of Bolivia 137
/⃞/, realizations of 59
Zaire 11, 103
Zapata Olivella, Manuel 6
Ziegler, Douglas−Val 272, 291
Zielina, María Carmen 92, 93